Nefertiti

Nefertiti

"Ruler of the Nile," "Daughter of Gods," and "Empress of the Mediterranean" or let us say Nefertiti; she was the female pharaoh who followed Hatshepsut and remained more controversial than her precedent. Nefertiti was the Queen of Egypt and co-ruled Egypt between 1379 and 1358 BC. She was the daughter of Ay (who would become Pharaoh after Tutankhamun's death) and the beloved wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters but no sons. Her name literally means 'a beautiful woman has arrived'.

As a woman, Queen Nefertiti followed the tradition of being her husband's partner in life, and as much she supported Akhenaton in his religious mission. Akhenaton made a unique impression on Egypt's history, when he began to promote the worship of one god above all others - the 'sun-god' Re or Ra. The queen actively involved in her husband's restructuring policies, she is shown wearing kingly regalia, executing foreign prisoners. Both – Nefertiti and Akhenaton – were said to be very much in love and at times inseparable. Many pictures show the whole family in domestic scenes. She seemed to be a beloved wife and mother. King Akhenaton's love was noted as legendary - the following is a love letter/poem to his Queen Nefertiti:

"...The Heiress, Great in Favour, Lady of Grace, Sweet of Love, Mistress of the South and North, Fair of Face, Gay with two Plumes, Beloved of the Living Aten (the king), the Chief Wife of the King whom he Loves, Lady of the two Lands, Great of love, Nefertiti, Living Forever and Ever…"

Throughout the Eighteenth Dynasty royal women played a significant and visible role in state and religious affairs. Nefertiti continued this tradition by actively assisting her husband in his attempt to convert Egypt to monotheism; she was an enthusiastic supporter and a full partner in the process of spreading the new religion. No look at the life of Nefertiti would be complete without a review of this religious revolution. She was influential in establishing one of the world's first monotheistic religions. Moreover, Nefertiti was pictured killing the enemies of Egypt in a scene normally reserved for pharaohs and she was shown with her husband awarding gold to royal favorites at the Window of Appearance.

By Year 14 of Akhenaten's reign Nefertiti had disappeared from view yet there is no record of her death nor has her mummy or place of burial been found. This has led to considerable speculation as to what happened. Some have suggested that the royal couple had a falling out and Nefertiti was banished in disgrace to her palace, Aten's Castle. Others are quite convinced that Nefertiti changed her name to Smenkhkare, adopted the guise of a man and ruled as co-regent with her husband. The majority view is that Nefertiti died of natural causes (possibly the plague) as a great and honored queen.

Dahab

Dahab

Dahab means gold in Arabic. It is said that this name was given by the Bedouins, who likened the shimmering sands to gold dust.

Dahab, located approximately 100km northwest of Sharm El-Sheikh, is still considered to be one of South Sinai's most treasured diving destinations swarmed by tourists.

It is famous for its golden beaches and deceptively deep diving sites, such as the Blue Hole, the Canyon and the Lighthouse.

Human rights

Human rights

Introduction:

The issue of human rights is one of the main issues currently raised on the political arena with a top priority on both local and global agenda. By the end of World War II, there arose a dire need to achieve world peace and global balance on the world arena.

As many peoples were seeking their independence and establishing their states, there emerged many international institutions and bodies concerned with human rights and the basic freedoms; resulting in the conclusion of a host of international agreements and declarations in various aspects of human rights.

On the local level, Egypt has keenly sought to participate in all international efforts on issues pertaining to human rights, woman and human development as part of an overall modernization process, which began since the early 20^th century.

As a sign of its civiilized commitment to and respect for human rights issues, Egypt has set up the National Council for Motherhood and Childhood (NCMC) in 1989, followed by the National Committee for Women in 1993, the National Council for Women (NCW) in 2000 and the National Council for Human Rights (NCHR) in 2003.

Egypt was also among the first countries to sign the international agreement on child rights in December 1989. It further declared its first decade for the child protection (1989-1999).

The issue of human rights in Egypt has also drawn a remarkable attention over the past few years as part of an increasing international interest in human rights and a rise in the number of the Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and civil society organizations operating in the same field.

The human rights situation in Egypt calls for examining the human rights issues politically and legally by handling the following issues:

• Human rights in Egyptian history

• International agreements and covenants acceded by Egypt.

• Human rights in the Egyptian Constitution.

• Major bodies and institutions operating in the field of human rights in Egypt.

I: Human rights in Egyptian history

The Egyptian Pharaonic civilization had earliest of all civilizations showing respect for human rights through ages. Ancient Egyptians were the first to acknowledge man's right to life. As a case in point, they used to defer execution of a convicted pregnant woman till she had given birth to her baby.

Ancient Egyptians also applied the principle of equality among all citizens as all Egyptians were equal before the law, without distinction between rich and poor, the free people and the slavemen or between the nationals and the foreigners.

As to education, Pharaonic Egypt encouraged both males and females to get proper education.

When Christianity came to Egypt, the Egyptians found in its tolerant teachings salvation from the injustice practiced by the Romans.

The Islamic religion has called for equality among all people and liberation of all human beings from all economic, political and social burdens.

II: Egypt's accession to international agreements and covenants on human rights:

1- International agreements on human rights acceded by Egypt:

A- The anti-slavery agreement of 1926 and its amendment protocol of 1953 as well as the complementary agreement of 1956.

B- The international anti-genocide treaty, signed in 1948.

C- Both agreements on Corvee of 1930, 1957 (International Labor Organizations agreements No. 29, 105)

D- The International Agreement on the Prevention of Women and Children Trafficking of 1950.

E- The International Agreement on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination of 1966.

F- The International Agreements on th eProhibition and Punishment for Racial Discrimination (United Nations, 1973).

G- The Convention on Refugees' Status (United Nations, 1951).

H- The Protocol amending the International Convention Refugees' Status (United Nations, 1967).

I- The International Covenant on Political and Civil Rights (United Nations, 1966).

- The International Covenant on Cultural, Social and Economic Rights (United Nations, 1966).

K- The International Convention on the Prevention of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (United Nations, 1967).

L- The international Convention on Women's Political Rights (United Nations, 1953).

M- The International Convention on combating torture and other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Humiliating Treatment (United Nations, 1984).

N- The International Convention on Child Rights (United Nations, 1990).

O- The International Convention on combating Racial Segregation in Sports (United Nations, 1985).

P- The International Convention on the Rights of Immigrant workers and Family members.

Q- The Optional Protocol to the Convention on Child Rights with regard to Trafficking and Exploiting Children in Prostitution and Pornography (Geneva, 2000).

R- The Optional Protocol to the Convention on Child Rights with regard to child participation in armed conflict (Geneva, 2004).

2- Regional human rights agreements acceded by Egypt:

A- The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, 1980.

B- The Arab Charter on Child Rights, 1983.

C- The African Charter on Child Rights and Welfare, Addis Ababa, 2001.

III: Human rights in the Egyptian Constitution:

1- Human rights principles as included in the First Chapter of the Constitution:

The First Chapter of the Constitution handled all matters related to the State including the following human rights principles:

A- People are the source of powers:

This principle is enshrined in Article 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Sovereignty is for the people alone and they are the source of authority.

The people shall exercise and protect this sovereignty, and safeguard national unity in the manner specified in the Constitution.

B- The principle of political freedom:

This principle is enshrined in Article 4 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: "The political system of the Arab Republic of Egypt is a multiparty one, within the framework of the basic elements and principles of the Egyptian society as stipulated in the Constitution. Political parties are regulated by law.

C- The nationality right principle:

This principle is enshrined in Article 6 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: "Egyptian nationality is defined by the law."

2- The human rights principles as included in the Second Chapter of the Constitution:

The Second Chapter of the Constitution, entitled " BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SOCIETY”, handles some of the human rights principles as follows:

1- The principle of equal opportunities and just distribution of public burdens:

This principle is mentioned in Article 8 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee equality of opportunity to all citizens.

2- The principle of family, motherhood and childhood protection as well as youth welfare:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 9&10 of the Constitution. Article No. 9 stipulates that:" The family is the basis of the society founded on religion, morality and patriotism."

"The State is keen to preserve the genuine character of the Egyptian family-with what it embodies of values and traditions-while affirming and developing this character in the relations within the Egyptian society."

Article No. 10 stipulates that:" The State shall guarantee the protection of motherhood and childhood, take care of children and youth and provide the suitable conditions for the development of their talents."

C- The principle of equality between man and woman:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 11 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the proper coordination between the duties of woman towards the family and her work in the society, considering her equal with man in the fields of political, social, cultural and economic life without violation of the rules of Islamic jurisprudence."

D- The principle of right to work and prevention of forced labour:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 13 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Work is right, a duty and an honour ensured by the State.

Workers who excel in their field of work shall receive the appreciation of the State and the society.

No work shall be imposed on the citizens, except by virtue of the law, for the performance of a public service and in return for a fair remuneration."

E- The right to assume public jobs:
This principle is enshrined in Article No. 14 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Public offices are the right of all citizens and an assignment for their occupants in the service of the people.

The State guarantees their (the occupants) protection and the performance of their duties in safeguarding the interests of the people.

They may not be dismissed by other than the disciplinary way, except in the cases specified by the law."

F- The principle of providing health, social and cultural services as well as social insurance:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 16 &17 of the Constitution. Article No. 16 stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee cultural, social and health services, and work to ensure them for the villages in particular in an easy and regular manner in order to raise their standard."

Article No. 17 stipulates that “The State- shall guarantee social and health insurance services and all the citizens have the right to pensions in cases of incapacity, unemployment and old-age, in accordance with the law."

G- The principle of free education in the different grades as well as making it obligatory in the primary grade:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 18&20 of the Constitution. Article No. 18 stipulates that:" Education is a right guaranteed by the State."

"It is obligatory in the primary stage and the State shall work to extend obligation to other stages."

"The State shall supervise all branches of education and guarantee the independence of universities and scientific research centres, with a view to linking all this with the requirements of society and production."

Article No. 20 stipulates that: " Education in the State educational institutions shall be free of charge in its various stages.”

H- The principle of equitable distribution of national income, guaranteeing a minimum level of wages, solving the unemployment problem and improving living standards:

This principle is mentioned in Articles No. 23&25 of the Constitution. Article No. 23 stipulates that: “The national economy shall be organised in accordance with a comprehensive development plan which ensures raising the national income, fair distribution, raising the standard of living, eliminating unemployment, increasing work opportunities, connecting wages with production, fixing a minimum and a maximum limit for wages in a manner which guarantees lessening the disparities between incomes."

Article No. 25 stipulates that: “Every citizen shall have a share in the national revenue to be defined by the law in accordance with his work or his unexploiting ownership."

I- The right of safeguarding the private property:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 34&35 of the Constitution. Article No. 34 stipulates that: “Private ownership shall be safeguarded and may not be put under sequestration except in the cases specified in the law and with a judicial decision. It may not be expropriated except for the general good and against a fair compensation in accordance with the law. The right of inheritance is guaranteed in it."

Article No. 36 stipulates that: “General sequestration of funds shall be prohibited."

"Private sequestration shall not be allowed except with a judicial decision."

3- The human rights principles as included in the Third Chapter of the Constitution:

The Third Chapter, entitled “PUBLIC FREEDOMS, RIGHTS AND DUTIES”, tackles many principles established in the international covenants on human rights as follows:

A- Achieving equality in terms of rights and duties and making no segregation or racial discrimination:

This principle is enshrined in Article 40 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “All citizens are equal before the law. They have equal public rights and duties without discrimination between them due to race, ethnic origin, language, religion or creed."

B- The principle of right and protection of freedom:

This principle is endorsed in Article No. 41 of the Constitution, stipulating that: “Individual freedom is a natural right and shall not be touched.”

C- The principle of treating those undergoing restricted freedoms in a way that safeguards their honor and prevention of their physical or moral torture or jail in places of detention beyond prison laws. In addition, evidence taken by force or under threat shall not be considered valid:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 42 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any person arrested, detained or his freedom restricted shall be treated in the manner concomitant with the preservation of his dignity."

"No physical or moral harm is to be inflicted upon him."

"He may not be detained or imprisoned except in places defined by laws organising prisons."

"If a confession is proved to have been made by a person under any of the aforementioned forms of duress or coercion, it shall be considered invalid and futile."

D- The principle of the inadmissibility of performing scientific or medical experiments on man against his free will:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 43 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any medical or scientific experiment may not be undergone on any person without his free consent.”

E- The principle of the sanctity of home and respect of the citizen's privacy:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 44&45. Article No. 44 stipulates that: “Homes shall have their sanctity and they may not be entered or inspected except by a causal judicial warrant prescribed by the law.”

Article No. 45 stipulates that: “The law shall protect the inviolability of the private life of citizens."

"Correspondence, wires, telephone calls an other means of communication shall have their own sanctity and secrecy and may not be confiscated or monitored except by a causal judicial warrant and for a definite period according to the provisions of the law."

F- The principle of the freedom of belief and free practice of religious rituals:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 46 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the freedom of belief and the freedom of practice of religious rites.”

G- The principle of freedom of opinion, expression, mass media and publication:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 47&48 of the Constitution. Article No. 47 stipulates that: “Freedom of opinion is guaranteed."

"Every individual has the right to express his opinion and to publicise it verbally or in writing or by photography or by other means within the limits of the law."

"Self-criticism and constructive criticism is the guarantee for the safety of the national structure."

Article No. 48 stipulates that: “Freedom of the press, printing, publication and mass media shall be guaranteed."

"Censorship on newspapers is forbidden as well as notifying, suspending or cancelling them by administrative methods."

"In a state of emergency or in time of war a limited censorship may be imposed on the newspapers, publications and mass media in matters related to public safety or purposes of national security in accordance with the law."

H- The principle of freedom of scientific research and cultural, artistic and literary innovation:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 49 of the Constitution. It stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the freedom of scientific research and literary, artistic and cultural invention and provide the necessary means for its realization."

I- The principle of free movement and inadmissibility of citizen's deportation:

This principle is mentioned in Articles No. 50&51 of the Constitution. Article No. 50 stipulates that: “No citizen may be prohibited from residing in any place and no citizen may be forced to reside in a particular place, except in the cases defined by the law.”

Article No. 51 stipulates that: “No citizen may be deported from the country or prevented from returning to it.”

J- The principle of granting the right of political asylum to foreign refugees, who are suppressed due to defending the peoples' interest, human rights, peace and justice and banning the extradition of any political refugee:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 53 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right to political asylum shall be guaranteed by the State for every foreigner persecuted for defending the peoples' interests, human rights, peace or justice."

"The extradition of political refugees is prohibited."

K- The principle of right to private assembly:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 54 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to peaceable and unarmed private assembly, without the need for prior notice."

"Security men should not attend these private meetings."

"Public meetings, processions and gatherings are allowed within the limits of the law."

L- The principle of right to participate in and form societies:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 55 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to form societies as defined in the law."

"The establishment of societies whose activities are hostile to the social system, clandestine or have a military character is prohibited."

M- The principle of right to establish unions and syndicates:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 56 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The creation of syndicates and unions on a democratic basis is a right guaranteed by law, and should have a moral entity."

"The law regulates the participation of syndicates and unions in carrying out the social programmes and plans, raising the standard of efficiency, consolidating the socialist behavior among their members, and safeguarding their funds."

"They are responsible for questioning their members about their behavior in exercising their activities according to certain codes of morals, and for defending the rights and liberties of their members as defined in the law."

N- The principle of right to run for elections:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 62 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to vote, nominate and express their opinions in referendums according to the provisions of the law."

"Their participation in public life is a national duty."

4- The human rights principles as included in the Fourth Chapter of the Constitution:

The Fourth Chapter of the Constitution, entitled “SOVEREIGNTY OF THE LAW”, contains many important aspects pertaining to human rights and freedoms as follows:

A- The principle of the judiciary independence and immunity:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 65 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall be subject to law."

"The independence and immunity of the judiciary are two basic guarantees to safeguard rights and liberties."

B- The principle of individuality of the penalty and that no crime or penalty is to be applied unless under a law. In addition, no penalty is to take effect unless under a judiciary ruling:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 66 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Penalty shall be personal."

"There shall be no crime or penalty except by virtue of the law."

"No penalty shall be inflicted except by a judicial sentence."

"Penalty shall be inflicted only for acts committed subsequent to the promulgation of the law prescribing them."

C- The principle of the innocence of the accused until proven guilty under legal prosecution that guarantees his right to defend himself:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 67 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any defendant is innocent until he is proved guilty before a legal court, in which he is granted the right to defend himself."

"Every person accused of a crime must be provided with counsel for his defense."

D- The principle of right of litigation to all people, resorting to court, guaranteeing speedy rulings in legal cases and banning the exclusion of actions from the censorship of the judiciary:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 68 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right to litigation is inalienable for all, and every citizen has the right to refer to his competent judge."

"The State shall guarantee the accessibility of the judicature organs to litigants, and the rapidity of statuting on cases."

"Any provision in the law stipulating the immunity of any act or administrative decision from the control of the judicature is prohibited."

E- The principle of the right to self-defense and affording it to those financially unable to do so:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 69 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right of defense in person or by mandate is guaranteed."

"The Law shall grant the financially incapable citizens the means to resort to justice and defend their rights."

G- The right to take immediate action due to arrest or to communicate with those who can do an action and the right to complain to the concerned parties:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 71 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any person arrested or detained should be informed, forthwith with the reasons for his arrest or detention."

"He has the right to communicate, inform, and ask the help of anyone as prescribed in the law."

"He must be faced, as soon as possible, with the charges directed against him."

"Any person may lodge a complaint to the courts against any measure taken to restrict his individual freedom."

"The law regulates the right of complaint in a manner ensuring a ruling regarding it within a definite period, or else release is imperative."

Fourth: Major human rights organizations and institutions operating in Egypt

1- Governmental organizations: -

"The National Council for Human Rights"

It was set up on June 12, 2003 under law No. 94 of 2003. Affiliated to the Shura Council, it aims at the promotion and protection of the human rights values, promoting awareness of human rights values and guaranteeing their freedom.
The Council is chaired by Dr. Boutrus Ghali with Dr. Ahmed Kamal Abul-Magd as Deputy-Chief and 25 public figures as members.

Goals:
The Council is seen as a new step to enhance democracy and ensure freedom of citizens from the standpoint of human rights, party pluralism, public freedoms and political reform. It aims at:-

- Protecting the Egyptian rights at home and promoting Egypt's image abroad by seeking to abolish all freedom-restricting legislations.
- Cooperating with human rights non-governmental organizations in Egypt which shoulder heavy burdens in this domain.

Its importance:
Egypt has always been keen on respecting human rights and strictly confronting any related individual violations that may occur. The need to establish a national institution to play a key role in this regard had been raised. The establishment of the National Council for Human Rights to tackle the practical, academic and legal sides of the human rights came as a forwardable response.

I: On practical terms
The Council monitors any violations in human rights and receives complaints regarding violations anywhere in Egypt.

II: On academic terms
The Council organizes seminars to raise awareness on human rights and individuals' rights and duties.

III: On legal terms
Under the new world order and globalization era, the international community is working to ensure respect to the rules of human rights and guarantee their application by all countries. The National Council for Human Rights is able to follow up and catch up with international development in the field of human rights.

Functions:-
- To lay down a national action plan to reinforce and develop the protection of human rights and propose useful means to achieve this plan.
- To receive complaints from citizens and organizations and channel them to concerned authorities.
- To follow up the ratification of international conventions and agreements related to human rights.
- To join Egyptian delegations to the national and international fora concerned with human rights. In addition, the council takes part in preparing country reports that required to be periodically submitted to UN human rights' commissions and other agencies in application of the international accords.
- To coordinate with state institutions concerned with human rights.
- To participate in disseminating the human rights cultures and raising citizens' awareness of the human rights values.

2- Non-governmental Societies:-
Acknowledging the civil society role in the field of human rights and other social and political fields, the state gave the opportunity for individuals and groups to establish NGOs to work in the field of human rights with full freedom.

A case in point of these societies are:

A- The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR):

EOHR was established in 1985 by a group of journalists and public figures interested in the field of human rights.

Goals:-

It aims at enhancing respect to the human rights and basic freedoms in a way to goes in line with tenets of divine religions and the basic principles of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and other International Conventions. It also works for defending individuals' rights against violations and abuses of these covenants and deepening citizens' awareness of their lawful rights, regardless of their creed or political affiliation.

Since 1990, the organization has issued annual reports on human rights in Egypt. It also issues a bulletin and statements reporting an forms of human rights violations.

B- Arab Organization for Human Rights

It was established in 1983. The first meeting of the AOHR founding committee was held on Dec. 1, 1983 in Cyprus. Its first plenary session met in Khartoum on January 30-31, 1987.

Goals:-

It aims at promoting respect to human and peoples' rights and the political freedoms in the Arab home for all citizens in accordance with the principles of the World Declaration of Human Rights and other related international charters. It also works for defending rights of individuals and groups against any violations.

C- The Arab Program for Human Rights Activists:

The Arab program for human rights activists was established in March 1997.

Goals:

- Protecting human rights activists against violations.
- Working with human rights activists to exchange experiences and skills and provide mutual protection against human rights violations.

D- Cairo Center for Human Rights Studies:

The Cairo Center for Human Rights Studies is a scientific, research and intellectual institution.

Goals:

- Bolstering human rights in the Arab world.
- Analyzing difficulties that block the application of international human rights law and disseminating human rights culture in the Arab societies.
- Promoting human rights culture.
- Drawing up scientific and educational programs and holding conferences, seminars and workshops on human rights.
http://www.sis.gov.eg

Victory ... Peace …Development

Victory ... Peace …Development
On the sixth of October 1973, our Egyptian Armed Forces engaged in a battle for honour; liberating the Egyptian land. By virtue of the leadership wisdom, accurate planning and the soldiers' courage, a military miracle took place. Our Egyptian Air Force flew over the enemy's fortifications launching, successfully, the first air strike that opened the gate of triumph, confused the enemy ranks and severed the alleged long arm of Israel.

That was when our troops crossed the Suez Canal and destroyed the Barlev line by which Israel had terrified the whole world, in turn they themselves believed the lie of the myth.

And that was when the Egyptian soldier managed to face the enemy's heavy artillery; it was courage that put an end to the war and made a coup in the military and strategic concepts.

Breaking the myth of the invincible Israel, was the incident that paved the way before the political and psychological balance and opened the gate for peace; the matter for which a battle of another kind was a prerequisite. Egypt had another battle seeking for a comprehensive peace and Arab-Israeli coexistence; the result was the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty.

The October victory unleashed energies for construction and modernization. A third battle was waged; establishing a modern country. The Egyptian revival, under the sponsorship of President Mubarak, swept. The whole world has testified to our economic reform program that works successfully. They hailed our management in achieving the infrastructure, production and high-level standards and growth rates, besides the economic boom.

Egypt looks to the past only to remember its martyrs and the great sacrifices of its men. As to the future, Egypt is planning on solid bases and sound foundations, equipped with the faith and determination of people to continue the victorious march started in October 1973.

Of all Arab countries, Egypt bore the brunt of three decades of military hostilities with Israel. Seeking peace, Egypt was sincere out of unshakable conviction that peace should prevail if the long-volatile Middle East area is to start catching up with the economic locomotive vigorously chugging ahead everywhere else.

This may explain why Cairo has been in the fore of the world countries striving to make peace a reality in this region. And in doing so, Egypt takes no sides, rather siding with a durable and lasting peace, which could brighten up the prospects in the region and consign animosity to history.

Without establishing this peace, any talk about economic boom and cooperation in the Middle East would be day-dreaming, if not political self-deception.

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier is located in Nasr City and it was made in the wake of October War in 1973 to memorize the sacrifices of the brave Egyptian soldiers. In the first anniversary of October War, late President Sadat issued directives to make a memorial to the martyrs of the war and to memorize the Unknown Soldier. An artistic competition was held for the purpose in which artist Sami Rafi, a professor in the Faculty of Fine Arts in Cairo who obtained his PhD from the Faculty of Fine Arts in Vienna, won the best design.

The memorial was made on 25/5/1975 and finished on 15/9/1975; it is four walls intersected at the peak in a pyramidal shape, referring to Egypt's Pyramids, the symbol of eternity. The height of the wall is 31, 6 meters and its thickness is 1, 9 meter and the width hit 14, 3 meters at the base.

Written on the memorial are the common names used by the Egyptians such as Mohamed, Adel, Gerges, Amer, Taher, Makram, Zaki, el-Qenawi, Abdellah, Abdel Samad, Ibrahim etc.

On October 6, 1975, President Sadat and then vice-president Hosni Mubarak opened the memorial and laid wreaths at the Unknown Soldier Memorial.

In 1981, the funeral of late President Sadat was mourned and he was buried in the same location where his sepulcher is next to that of the Unknown Soldier. Egypt's guests and visitors are keen to visit this memorial and lay wreaths at the Unknown Soldier Memorial and Sadat's sepulcher as well.

http://www.sis.gov.eg/VR/october/english/6.htm

At Noon The Myth Was Shattered

At Noon The Myth Was Shattered

Ahmed Bah'a Eldeen

This book is just an attempt to put the stage of the Arab-Israeli conflict within its proper historical frame by seeking for the facts and witnesses in western and Israeli sources. It is the book "At Noon the Myth Was Shattered" by Ahmad Bahauldin, issued in February 1974. What is it all about ?!

The book consists of nine chapters; every chapter has a topic that reflects its content of facts. There is also analysis for some incidents in order to make reader understand and appreciate the comprehensiveness of the situation.

On the war of June 1967, the author writes, "you cannot talk about October war and appreciate it as it should without hinting at the war of 1967 and its effects. Both wars, actually, are two battles in one war.

The war of June 1967 has deeply affected the style of political and military work and even the spirit of peoples.

"The war of June 1967 was just a trap for Arabs. Israel put a plan in 11 years; their interests in the Middle East are the interests of super-power countries. But we cannot deny our responsibility for the defeat".

The author says, "honestly, if we are trying to analyze the reasons of defeat, we have to categorize all and every negative act in our contemporary life. Anyway, we should admit that the defeat was the sperm of the Israeli fable".

Elements of the fable
"Israel tried to make itself a myth or a legend; a fabulous story and a mysterious figure that could be loved or hated, but anyway it should be frightening for the whole globe as its being unconquerable." Such option was not strange for such people who think themselves to be God's chosen people.

"Israel advertised for a complicated legend consisting of political, economic and military elements; Zionism is a legend that managed, in 50 years, to turn dreams into facts. And Jew is another category of mankind who can turn dust into gold, ruins into cities and swamps into green zone, once they touch them.

"Though such legend could be easily denied, that historical era helped Zionists to achieve their goals in Palestine. But we have to assert that the progress they made is not that fabulous; there are other countries that managed to make such progress in a shorter time.

"The military element of the fable was the most dangerous on the spirits of Arabs, despite its not being the only decisive in the race track. We can understand that the Israeli propaganda, firstly, was sharper than their artillery; they described the war of June 1967 as the real gap between Arabs and Israel, and the world should completely believe in such saying.

"Every Israeli General became a fable and a mysterious character, every soldier is a hero, every citizen is James Bond. The Israeli man is the new superman, however, Arabs are the most fool and degrading and even the most stupid men who cannot understand the radical changes in the world.

"Within the frame of such concept, books, movies, novels and articles spread out violently everywhere; the massive propaganda succeeded in convincing the international public opinion that their legend is a fact. Such poison sneaked, in maximum dose, into the spirits of Arabs which was the actual goal.

"The psychological obstacle was superior to the dusty one of Barlev. Now that Arabs believe that the enemy is unconquerable, they cannot compare themselves to the lofty Israeli people who are competent in all fields, especially the military field.

"The Israeli front line had the feeling of upset-possessed Arabs, and they could not imagine that their legend will turn into an overdose wine that made them lose their minds and soon they became the victims of their lie."

The war of Attrition
Israel expected Arab's surrender after the war of June 1967. Moshe Dayan; the then Israeli Minister of War said that he was at his home, waiting the reactions of Arabs. But Arabs rejected the stepping down of the late leader, Gamal Abdel-Naser; went out in the middle of the night denying and condemning the surrender and asking for a firm standing against the enemy.

Such firm standing should be asserted practically; on the first of July 1967, the Israeli artillery and air force failed to capture the position "Ras El-Ash" at the eastern bank of the Suez Canal. Heroes of the famous battle "Ras El-Ash", were only 30 soldiers and a limited popular resistance at the west bank.

Battles of resistance came frequently; on July 14,1967, a small Egyptian torpedo boat managed to scuttle the famous destroyer; Ilat, in a battle that made a radical change in the history of the naval thought. Such battle was followed by the aching decision of declaring the cities of the Suez Canal evacuated.

Such period of strife gave the opportunity of restructuring the armed forces. The Egyptian citizens participated, with all their potentialities in the process of restructuring without giving heed for the Israeli mockery.

Now that the stage of confrontation ended, the stage of deterrence has been started in September1968, to reaffirm the determination of the Egyptian will.

In such stage soldiers have practiced good experience that made them competent. They made many successful attempts in the way and technique of crossing.

The author of our book gives scores of examples of the courageous battles through which the Egyptians have scored their desired goals.

His facts are based on the Israeli official statements that assert the violence of such Egyptian military operations.

Israel fortified its positions on the west bank of the Suez Canal; by building the fortified stronghold Barlev Line; a chain of fortifications along its front with the Egyptian side. Once again, Israel tried to categorically affect the psychological state of the Egyptians by skirmishes of their air force.

Another stage

They were all determined to establish such net, sacrificing whatever losses or casualties. At the end our will triumphed and the anti-aircraft missiles net started to operater on June 30,1970, in a most gloomy day in the history of the Israeli Air Force.

Our net had downed 4 aircrafts, in one day, and captured three pilots. Surprise

Surprise is the first and foremost issue that October War arise; the author asserts, " There was an element of surprise for the enemy in that lofty war which helped determine it".

http://www.sis.gov.eg/VR/october/english/12.htm

Ottoman Era

Ottoman Era

In 1517, Sultan Selim I entered Egypt and he regulated rule in Egypt via dividing power among three bodies. The Wali, the governor, is the deputy of the Sultan in Egypt and he was appointed for 3 years only. His mission was to carry out the orders of the sultan, send Jezia and lead the armies.

The Divan consisted of the major officers in the Ottoman army, major employees, scholars (Ulama) and landowners. The Divan's mission was to help the Wali in ruling the country and it had the veto right to the Wali's decisions besides calling for dismissing him.

The Mamlukes led the local departments, as the Ottomans wanted to make use of their experience in running the affairs of the country.

When Ali Bey Al-Kabir assumed the office of Skeikh Al-Balad, ruler of the country, he allied with Sheikh Daher Al-Omar in Palestine against the Ottoman sultan and expelled the Ottoman Wali and announced Egypt's independence.

Ali Bey Al-Kabir managed to extend his influence to Al-Hejaz and Yemen and sent an army under the leadership of Muhammad Bey Abuda Dahab. Yet, the Ottomans managed to convince Abuda Dahab of allying with them against Ali Bey Al-Kabir, hence Egypt returned an Ottoman state.

The Mamluke Era

At the last days of the Ayyubid State, the Mamlukes controlled most of the important posts in Egypt. After the murdering of Turan Shah, the last of the Ayyubid Sultans, Shajarat El-Dur, wife of King Al-Salih Ayyoub, married Aybak one of the Bahari Mamlukes chiefs.

After the death of Aybak, a number of Bahari Mamlukes ruled over Egypt the most famous of them was Sultan Qutuz who defeated the Tartars in `Ein Jalut. Sultan Baybars succeeded Qutuz and managed to achieve a religious sovereignty over the Muslim world.

The Ayyubid Era

The Ayyubid Era

Salah al-Din Al-Ayyubi (Saladin) assumed control of Egypt upon the death of the last Fatimid Caliph Al-Adid in 1171. Salah al-Din played a great role in establishing a Sunni state in Egypt by building a lot of Sunni schools (madrasas). Before his death, Salah al-Din divided his kingdom among his sons and brothers where Egypt was the share of his son Al-Aziz Othman

The Fatimid Era

The Fatimid Era

After the death of Abu el-Misk Kafour Al-Ikhshid, the commander of the Fatimids' armies Jawhar Al-Siqilli managed to capture Alexandria in 969 A.D. Hence, the Fatimid Caliphate began in Egypt and continued for two centuries (969: 1171).

Al-Siqilli established a new capital for Egypt, namely Cairo and built Al-Azhar Mosque to teach Islamic sciences.

Ikhshidi Era

Ikhshidi Era

After the death of Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid, his minister Abu el-Misk Kafour had the guardianship over Al-Ikhshid's two sons. Under the name of Al-Ikhshid's sons, Kafour ruled over Egypt for 23 years.

On his death, the eleven-year old boy Abu Al-Fawaris Ahmed, Al-Ikhshid's grandson, succeeded him. Therefore, chaos prevailed in Egypt, a matter that paved the way before the Fatimids to seize Egypt.

Abbasid Caliphate

Abbasid Caliphate

Faris witnessed the birth of the Abbasid Caliphate when the leader of the Abbasid armies Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani revolted against the Umayyads where the battle first took place near the Euphrates before it moved to Egypt when the armies of the Abbasids, under the leadership of Salih bin Ali, achieved victory over the Umayyads and the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II was killed in 750 A.D.

Then, after entering Egypt, the leader of the Abbasids Salih bin Ali established the capital of the Abbasids in Egypt called Al-Askar.

Despite the capture of Egypt, the Abbasid influence was not stable, a matter that encouraged one of the Turk leaders in the Abbasid army in Egypt Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid to seize power.

The Egyptian Civilization during the Islamic Era

The Egyptian Civilization during the Islamic Era

The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt.

Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in al-Qatay' city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn el-Aas mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props and the foundation sign board. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape in Egypt derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”.

The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and Al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt.

Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion.

During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah ed-Din's (Saladin's) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics' houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains.

Egyptians under Islamic rule adopted the same techniques and styles of art and ornamentation prevailing in the preceding periods. Most notable arts of this period were wood engraving and ornamentation, assembled dove tailed and lathed wood work. Islamic style textiles, porcelain and stained glass were also widely known during this period.

The Egyptian Civilization under the Romans

The Egyptian Civilization under the Romans

In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to its unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire.

During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics and fine linen fabrics.

The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial centre in the east Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire.

Alexandria University maintained its position as a centre of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt.

Egypt in the Greek Era

Egypt in the Greek Era

Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time.

Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC-30 BC)

After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC.

The Egyptian Civilization under the Ptolemies

Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a centre of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also as the prime sea harbor on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known Lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its University, which symbolized a great Hellenistic- Egyptian civilization.

Alexandria University

At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived at scientific facts concerning the earth's rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous of the university scientists were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.

Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) and its Cultural Influence

The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time. The Library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at Alexandria Library to more than 700,000. The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs' apparel.

Egypt in the Pharaonic Era

Egypt in the Pharaonic Era

The Pharaonic Era dates back to 3000 years B.C. till Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 323 B.C. During the Pharaonic Era, Egypt witnessed many aspects of progress and renaissance in all fields.

Historians divide the Pharaonic Era into three successive divisions: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Modern Kingdom. The Pharaonic Era is thus divided into three dynasties as follows:

Ancient Age (Dynasties I & II)

In 3200 B.C. Menes managed to unify north and south of Egypt and he established the first ruling dynasty. To secure the unity of Egypt, Menes established the city of Memphis near Delta.

Old Kingdom (Dynasties from III to VI)

During the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed stability, security and peace, a matter that achieved its economic, cultural and artistic progress in this time. The kings of the Old Kingdom ruled till 2800 B.C. after the throne of Egypt moved to Manf by Zoser, whose pyramid is the oldest known one at Saqqara. The Egyptian civilization flourished in this period, a matter represented in the building of the Giza Pyramids: Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus).

The First Middle Age (Dynasties from VII to X)

This age began in 2200 B.C. when Menthotpe II (Mentuhotep) managed to reunify the country.

The Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI& XII)

After Menthotpe II, the Prince of Thebes, managed to reunify the country and founded a strong government, Egypt flourished economically. In 2000 B.C. Amenemhet I played a great role in the renaissance of the Middle Kingdom.

The kings and queens of Dynasty XII acquired fame all over the world in the fields of policy, war, culture civilization and religion such as Ahmos, hero of liberation, Amenhotep I who laid down fair standards for wages and incentives, Tuhutmos I, the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders north and south, and spread out education everywhere, Tuhutmos III who possessed a unique military genius, Tuhutmos IV, the diplomat who was the first to record international agreements.

This is in addition to Akhenaton who was the first to call for the oneness of the Creator and Tut Ankh Amun, who gained fame in the modern time. The most famous queens of this time were Ahmos Nefertari, wife of Ahmos I, Tee, mother of Akhenaton, Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton and Hatchepsut who ruled Egypt for 20 years.

The Second Middle Age (Dynasties XIII, XVII)

In 1725 B.C. the Hyksos attacked Egypt and occupied the Egyptian lands. Yet, the princes of Thebes, led by Ahmos I, managed to expel them out of Egypt.

The Modern Kingdom (Dynasties XVIII, XX)

After Ahmos expelled the Hyksos, he worked on establishing a well-equipped army. Ramsis II, one of the most famous kings of the Modern Kingdom, signed the first peace treaty in history with the Hittites.

The Late Age (Dynasties XXI to XXX)

From Dynasty XXI till Dynasty XVIII, the Assyrians and the Persians occupied Egypt, till the rule of the Pharaohs ended during the reign of Dynasty XXX when Alexander the Great conqured Egypt.

Arts of the Pharaonic Civilization
Architecture

Ancient Egyptians made outstanding achievements in architecture, as can be clearly seen from the everlasting monuments they have left behind. The first pyramid ever built in Egypt was Zoser's, then Midum's pyramid. However, the Giza pyramids together with the Sphinx, built during the 4th Dynasty, are the most famous of the 97 pyramids built to be tombs for Pharaohs.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, many funerary temples were built. The 12th Dynasty kings were also interested in el-Fayyoum area where they attended to irrigation works.
The most famous of those temples was the Labyrinth Temple or the “Maze Palace” as called by the Greeks. The temple was built in Hawwara by King Amenemehet III, who also built castles, fortresses and walls along Egypt's eastern borders.

The period of the Middle Kingdom was the heyday of architectural arts, where exquisite inscriptions and fine artworks were engraved on the walls of colossal temples, the most prominent ones were Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel.

The era of Thutmose I was a turning point in using pyramids as tombs. On the west bank of the Nile at Luxor, there were carved-into-mountains tombs with rich and luxurious funerary furniture. This can be clearly seen in the tomb of Tutankhamun.

In order to keep wall inscriptions intact, the artists of the Modern kingdom deliberately used deep slightly embossed engravings, thus, avoiding distortion or erosion.

The most recently discovered tomb of the Valley of Kings was that of the sons of King Ramsis II; a vast tomb containing 15 mummies. Pharaonic obelisks were cut out of granite and erected in two-somes at the entrance of temples. Some of the most beautiful examples of architectural art in the ancient Egyptian empire are the temples of Amun, Cheops in Karnak and Luxor, Ramsium and Hetshep-sut at ad-Deir al-Bahari as well as the rock-embedded temples such as the major and minor temples of Abu Simbel.

New trends in the architectural, plastic and applied arts emerged as can be clearly seen in the sculptured colossal and minor statues and ornamented temple columns and mural inscriptions. This elevated style is evident in thousands of small statues made from alabaster, wood or ivory and pieces of antiquities made of glass and earthenware and jewelry inlaid with precious stones.

Literature

Ancient Egyptian monuments still bear witness to their excellent talent in writing and literature. Humanity is indebted to ancient Egyptians for inventing writing, later called by the Greeks the “hieroglyphic alphabet”; composed of 24 letters. Writings were made in black or red ink on papyrus. Egyptians excelled in religious writing which tackled their religious creeds and theories of the after life, secrets of the universe, various myths of gods, prayers and songs. The oldest examples of which were “The Pyramids Texts” and “The Book of the Dead”.

Ancient Egyptian writers were excellent story writers. They used words as a tool to convey wisdom and rules of good conduct. Ancient Egyptians were bent on narrating their heritage of wise sayings and proverbs, chanting them in their feasts and ceremonies. They pursued the tradition of documenting current events of their times. This rich cultural climate was instrumental in generating several Egyptian men of letters and philosophers who left masterpieces indicative of a high level of culture and thought in Egypt.

Music

Music and songs were a favorite object for all Egyptians. Music was used for educating young people as well as in public and private ceremonies, particularly in the army. It was equally used in prayers and the burial of the dead.

Egyptians from the Old Kingdom knew wind and stringed instruments such as the “harp” known at that time as “Tipoti”. They also invented many new types of percussion instruments which were further improved across their history.

Ornamentation

Ornaments, characterized by high artistic precision and beautiful form, were also known to ancient Egyptians. Decorative elements were derived from natural surroundings including papyrus, palm trees, lotus flowers and precious stones. Amulets, believed to protect them against evil spirits, were used. Women, in particular, paid special attention to their own make-up and toilet. They were accustomed to use Kohl (as eye-liner), bracelets, necklaces, rings and henna. Costumes in Pharaonic Egypt varied from one class to another. Clothes were made of soft linen or silk fabrics imported from ancient Syria (Phoenicia). Clothes differed according to the occasion.

http://www.sis.gov.eg

The Giza

The Giza area contains Egypt's most illustrious monuments: the Pyramids and great Sphinx. Only 12km from Cairo, it's a community where many employees in Cairo reside. At dusk, from the main roadway, the colossal structures jut out into the sky, appearing to tower over the village homes and shops. A reminder of the past, they are dark purple shadows of another distant era.

From Giza, you can choose to travel across the desert to see several rarely visited pyramids as well as the pyramids at Sakkara even further to the south.

Coptic Cairo

Coptic Cairo is only its modern name. "Coptic" is the name for the Christian's who reside almost solely in this area of town. To most, this is also known as Old Cairo. Islamic Cairo is home of the very oldest section of Cairo. It's near to Islamic Cairo in vicinity, but it has an entirely different atmosphere and sites. Inside its walled exterior, nestled within the 1st century AD Roman fortress of Babylon, is still standing as a barrier for intruders. The wall lined streets do, even more than those of Islamic Cairo, resemble an inescapable labyrinth. The compound and serene, so much so that many visitors tend to speak in soft whispers without knowing why. The main entrance first leads you to the petite Coptic Museum with tells of Coptic Cairo's history and the significance of the region's main attraction: the Hanging Church. Resting between two round Roman towers, against which the waters of the Nile once lapped before the river shifted westward centuries ago. Also within Coptic Cairo's walls are old monasteries, churches, and the famous synagogue Ben Ezra.

Islamic Cairo

Following the conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, the Muslims erected a city and named it Al-Fustat, after the ruling Dynasty at that time. Located on what is now the southern border of modern Cairo. Successive dynasties established their unique capitals expanding further and further to the Northeast, until present-day Cairo was finally
established. At that time, however, Cairo occupied very little land. It was a mere square with outer laying residences and large structures that attested to the successive rulers' wealth. Salah El-Din's colossal citadel called "Al-Qalaa", for example, was built on a rocky spur, now central to Islamic Cairo and a reminder of how powerful the early Dynasties had been. During the Mamluk era which lasted from 1250 to 1517, a wealth of Mosques, mausoleums and Islamic buildings were added to the city, making a walk through it, today, an enriching experience for history lovers, photographers, and sightseers. Islamic Cairo, in its current form is still home to the early buildings such as the city's oldest Mosque and University. While strolling through the maze of narrow and highly trafficked streets you will find yourself transported to an earlier time, a time when the city was still new. Old coffee shops still house men in traditional dress. They sip peppermint tea from clear glasses and blow smoke from their nostrils – seasoned smokers. They are from another area, and within Khan Al-Kalili market, the biggest in Cairo, El-Fishwai's and other coffee shops still echo revolutionary spirit of the early 1950's. Islamic Cairo is incomparable to any quarter in any other city. The history it holds and the mud-packed roads with vendors still selling nuts from push carts and spices in burlap bags is what many come to Egypt to see.

Memphis 1

Standing near present day Cairo, the ancient city of Memphis was the first capital of Egypt during the era of the Old Kingdom and most of the Pharaonic period. There are conflicting reports about who founded the city, officially, but the most popular version says that King Menes built the city during his rein in 3100 BC. King Menes, responsible for unifying Upper and Lower Egypt, chose this particular location in order to best control overland and river routes heading out in all possible directions, making it, as 5th century historian, Herodotus, describes as a "prosperous city and cosmopolitan centre."

Memphis is best visited from Sakkara, which was once at the city's center. Today the city is in ruins, almost completely vanished from history. Just traveling to where its strong walls once stood reminds us of the toils the city's population had to endure. Foreign invaders, from the Romans onwards, ravaged the city in attempt to overthrow it. The pillaging combined with the Nile's frequent floods, buried the torn town under mud and debris. Today, little of a semblance of the city is visible. It is buried under luscious palm groves and cultivated fields. All was not lost, however. Remnants of Memphis and some of its many artifacts can be seen in an open-air museum in the neighboring village of Mit Rahina. The most significant of pieces here is the limestone statue of Ramses II and the 80 ton sphinx of the 18th Dynasty.

What little has been discovered at Memphis is gathered together in a small open-air Museum in the village of Mit Rahina . The showpiece is a colossal limestone statue of Ramses II found in Memphis and replicated in Midan Ramses. In the garden there are more statues of Ramses II and an 18th Dynasty sphinx, at 80 tons the largest calcite statue ever found. The garden also contains several calcite slabs on which the sacred Apis bulls were mummified before being buried in nearby Saqqara.