"Egyptian women were leading a happy life in a country where gender equality seemed to be normal"
Christien de Rouse Nobelcouer
French Egyptologist
Women have played a significant role in Egyptian society. The earliest appearance of woman in public life in Egypt goes back to the Pharaonic era, where she enjoyed an equal status with man and engaged in politics and government. Queen Hatshepsut reigned from 1479 to 1457 B.C. She played an effective historical role in enhancing State structure in the realms of religion, trade and domestic and foreign policy. The same course was pursued by Nefertiti, Cleopatra and Shajaret ad-Dorr in later eras.
With the rise of the modern State under Mohammed Ali's reign a magnificent role for women emerged. In 1982, nursing school was established forming a nucleus for Egyptian women to take off household jobs.
However, this did not take place overnight but was rather stimulated by calls marked by enlightened scholars such as Rifa'a al-Tahtawi, Qassem Ameen, for emancipation of women and their right to education and employment.
In the early 1900s, a number of Egyptian women formed the first services NGO, i.e. Mohammed Ali's Charity - the Intellectual League of Egyptian Women. These embryonic formations paved the way for wider participation by Egyptian women in public action.
The ensuing years witness efforts by women to establish and participate in charities, voluntary and literary societies. Women showed an increasing important role in national issues, with women taking to the streets in mass demonstrations protesting against British occupation and participating in the 1919 Revolution. However, the 1923 Constitution was issued without giving women their political rights; thus leading to escalated calls for women's access to much rights.
The first women's political party was established under the name of the Egyptian Feminist Party in 1942. The Egyptian Women's Associate called in 1947 for the need to amend the electoral law to grant women the right to vote on equal footing with men, right of access to local and representative councils. During a women conference held on February 19, 1951, a women's demonstration chanted slogans calling for equal rights for women.
Following the July 1952 Revolution, the 1956 Constitution granted full political rights to women. At that time, there was a dominant recognition that denial of women's rights was in conflict with the rules of democracy. Accordingly, woman made her default as a member of the parliament in the vote of the 1957 elections.
The access that women were granted to their political rights was the starting-point for the engagement of other rights with as that of access to public and top positions, recognition of her as a productive force on equal footing with man. This has lead to the appointment of the first woman minister in Egypt in 1962.
Since then, the practice of assigning women to ministerial posts in the Egyptian cabinets has been pursued and her representation in other legislative, judicial and political institutions entrenched.
Women in the Pharaonic age
The historical importance of the ancient Egyptian civilization lies in its human message and values encompassing all aspects of life. Over seven millennia, the Egyptian civilization provided the roots from which mankind derived its human heritage. Most important was the recognition of women's role in society. This recognition was translated by forging out a lofty status for the Egyptian women. Women in Egypt have always played an important role; they were men's only partners in life as well as in afterlife and were ensured total equality. They also enjoyed equal legal rights and responsibilities as their husbands when first bound in holy matrimony. The goddess of wisdom was symbolized by a woman and the goddess Isis was the symbol of loyalty and fidelity. They believed that the tears she shed over her murdered husband caused the Nile flooding.
Egyptian women in the pharaonic history had access to various jobs. In practice they were so highly appreciated that they were elevated to the throne throughout ancient history, including Queen Heutop Cheops' mother, Queen Khunt, Mykerinus' daughter, Queen Abah Hoteb of Thebes, Queen Hatshepsut, Amon's daughter, Queen Ti, Akhnatun's wife (Nefertiti), and Cleopatra, whose famous love story with Marc Anthony has inspired many literary and dramatic writings all over the world.
Women also had access to public positions, including judges. For example, Nepet, mother-in-law of King Bibi I from the 6th Dynasty served as judge. Women held similar positions under the 26th Dynasty. Moreover, they practiced medicine, such as Psechet, who served as chief physician under the 4th Dynasty. These facts reflect their independence as well as legal and social competence with their rights of possession and signature of contracts and legal conventions. Moreover, there was not any kind of that trusteeship from which Roman women were suffering for a long time.
Social Rights
Ancient Egyptians were the first to introduce laws on marriage, they issued legislations and laws regulating marriage and holy matrimony and protecting women's rights. These legislations and laws stressed on issues regarding the rights and obligations based on mutual respect between the husband and his wife, taking into consideration that the wife was queen of her house, entitled to her own inheritance and to a third of her husband's fortune after his death. Moreover, the ancient Egyptian was keen on burying his wife beside him in the grave, being his partner in life and after resurrection.
Concerning the right to education she had the right since the age of four to good schooling at strictly disciplined educational institutions where she would be taught basics of mathematics, geometry and the fundamentals of hieroglyphic and colloquial hieratic. Ultimately, she would obtain a diploma (title of ink-put holder) – on equal footing with boys – and would be licensed for full practice in any of the branches of knowledge she chose.
It is shown obviously that the Egyptian woman in the pharaonic age enjoyed a special status as well as unique treatment and caring. This is reflected through some sayings of Egyptian wise men on the importance of caring about woman, such as:
"If you seek wisdom, love your partner, care about her and she will care about your home".
"Care about her as long as you live as she is the gift of God who answered your prayers. Enjoy this blessing as the sanctification of blessing is to satisfy the God".
"Feel her pain before she feels it. She is your children's mother. If you make her happy, you make them happy. By caring about her, you care about them. She is a trust in your heart and hand, as you are responsible for her before the Greatest God you pledged before His shrine to be her brother, father and life partner".
Such were the concepts of the Egyptian, while man was suffering under the power of Barbarism in the forests dealing with the principles of strength and weakness.
Women in Islam
Islam emerged in Egypt years ago, it regulated, through its tolerant law, the status and independence of women. Islam had given Moslem Egyptian women rights that were unknown to their European counterparts until the 20th century when women in most countries of the world were suffering firm prosecution and slavery.
Women's rights in Islam
The Qur'an and the Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) are the sources from which every Muslim woman derives her rights and duties. Women are addressed in the Holy Qur'an as equally as men. Both sexes are equal before God; the fact being that Islam makes no distinction in judging a person's character on account of gender. This is illustrated in the Holy Qur'an, in the first verse of the chapter entitled "Women," reading, "O mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it its mate and from them both have spread abroad a multitude of men and women. Be careful of your duty toward Allah in whom you claim (your rights) of one another, and towards the wombs (that bore you). Lo! Allah has been a Watcher over you." (4:1)
Islam gives equal treatment to both men and women in civil criminal laws. Men's and women's lives, honor and property are equally safe guarded. None of them may be deprived of their freedom without substantial indictment and both have full freedom of expression.
Since men and women both came from the same essence, they are equal in their humanity. Women cannot be by nature evil (as some people believe) or then men would be evil also. Similarly, neither gender can be superior because it would be a contradiction of equality. In terms of their hold on faith and their good deeds Islam makes no distinction between men and women as also with respect to reward and punishment. In addition, traditions harmful and unfair to women have also been totally and ultimately proscribed.
The Prophet (pbuh) said "Seeking knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim" as reported by Ibn Maajah. Hence, Islam recognizes a woman's right to education. Women must acquire the appropriate education to perform this duty in accordance with their own natural talents and interests. In addition to the primary and highly regarded functions of providing support to her husband, child bearing, raising and upbringing her children, she may work outside home for the good of the community as long as she fulfils her family obligations and she has the skills to do so.
Women in Islam are allowed to work; a good example of this is Prophet Muhammad's first wife Khadija, who was engaged in trade and Ayisha who used to teach the Prophet's companions (Sahabbah) from behind the hijab (veil). After immigrating to Medina, Prophet Mohamed (PBUH) called upon men and women to work, asking for alleviating women's burden due to their physical nature. So, they provided medication to the injured, prepared food for soldiers and supplied drinking water.
Also, they took part in al-Yarmuke battle led by the Arab commander Khaled Ibn al-Walid. Muslim women have also assumed the most crucial of all tasks; that of providing fatwa (official Islamic opinion), and sitting as a judge. This came after the Imam Abu Hanifa gave legal opinion that access to the position of judges is permissible for women.
Muslim men are ordered to be respectful, amicable and fair to their wives.
A dowry is a husband's gift to his wife, to do with as she pleases.
Women have the right, under Islamic Sharia, to choose their prospective husbands. Consent is a precondition to marriage.
In the case of divorce, women are entitled to alimony and child support.
Women in Modern Egypt
The progress of women in modern Egypt over half a century has been associated with a number of societal issues, such as the need to modernize Egypt.
As Mohammed Ali started to lay the foundations for a modern State, there emerged calls for modernizing the society to serve this end, including the need for women's education.
As early as 1832, a midwifery school was established.
In 1872, social reformist Rifa'ah Tahtawi strongly advocated the cause of educating women. One year later, in 1873, the first government school "as-Siofiyya" for girls was established, with 286 students enrolled.
In response to escalating advocacy for women's education, Princess Fatima, Khedive Ismail's daughter, donated 6 feddans of her property whereon to develop a private university (now Cairo university); in addition to her precious jewelry to spend on construction works and endowing 674 feddans to cover the project costs.
In 1928, a number of pioneer women enrolled in the Egyptian university.
Hoda Sha'rawi led the first Arab woman delegation to an international conference in Rome, Italy, in 1923.
The Arab Women's Association was established in 1924.
The first woman magazine, based in Alexandria, serving as a mouthpiece for women's rights was established under the name of Al-Fatah in 1892.
In 1925, a feminist party, the Egyptian Woman's Party was formed.
1942 saw the birth of the Women's National Party, which fought to have women employed in all state positions.
In 1949, the Bint en-Nil (Daughter of the Nile) Party was formed, with support from the British Embassy.
The 1919 Revolution represents a landmark in Egypt's modern history. Egyptians from all walks of life, both men and women, Muslims and Christians, stood united in the struggle for national independence. For the first time in the history of modern Egypt, women staged their own demonstrations. Two were shot dead by British occupation forces. In 1920, Hoda Sha'rawi was elected head of Al-Wafd Central Women's Committee under the leadership of Saad Zaghloul.
With the outbreak of the July 1952 Revolution the concept of women's participation in all fields of activities was further embedded. In 1956, woman was given access to the rights of vote and candidature. Then, she became a member of parliament and the cabinet engaged in partisan, trade-union, professional syndicate and NGOs' activities, assumed top management positions and finally sat at the bench as a judge.
At the last days of the Ayyubid State, the Mamlukes controlled most of the important posts in Egypt. After the murdering of Turan Shah, the last of the Ayyubid Sultans, Shajarat El-Dur, wife of King Al-Salih Ayyoub, married Aybak one of the Bahari Mamlukes chiefs.
After the death of Abu el-Misk Kafour Al-Ikhshid, the commander of the Fatimids' armies Jawhar Al-Siqilli managed to capture Alexandria in 969 A.D. Hence, the Fatimid Caliphate began in Egypt and continued for two centuries (969: 1171).
After the death of Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid, his minister Abu el-Misk Kafour had the guardianship over Al-Ikhshid's two sons. Under the name of Al-Ikhshid's sons, Kafour ruled over Egypt for 23 years.
Faris witnessed the birth of the Abbasid Caliphate when the leader of the Abbasid armies Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani revolted against the Umayyads where the battle first took place near the Euphrates before it moved to Egypt when the armies of the Abbasids, under the leadership of Salih bin Ali, achieved victory over the Umayyads and the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II was killed in 750 A.D.
The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt. 
In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to its unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire. 
Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time. 
The Pharaonic Era dates back to 3000 years B.C. till Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 323 B.C. During the Pharaonic Era, Egypt witnessed many aspects of progress and renaissance in all fields.
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