Recreational tourism

Recreational tourism

Egypt has a wide range of beaches situated on the Mediterreanean and the Red Sea that extend to over 3,000 km.The Red sea has serene waters,colored coral reefs,rare fish and beautiful mountain.

The Akba Gulf beaches also provide facilities for practicing sea sports .

Safaga tops the Red Sea zone with its beautiful location on the Suez Gulf .

Last but not least,Sharm el-Sheikh,Hurghada,Dahab,Ras Sidr,Mars Alam,Safaga and the northern coast of the Mediterranean are major tourist's destinations of the recreational tourism.

El-Ain El-Sukhna

El-Ain El-Sukhna

Cairo's nearest beach ...just an hour away

EL-Ain EL-Sukhna: the Arabic for “ hot spring” was named after the nearby sulphur springs .It is also an ideal site for fishing and water sports.

Ain El Sukhna is about 140 km east of Cairo, just an houraway by car. It offers Cairenes and welcome, handy respite from the city's fast paced life .

The area is 40 km south of the port of Suez and is administratively part of the Suez Governorate. Its territory extends along the Red Sea shoreline for about 60 km from the southern borders of Ras El Adebbya in the north to Ras El Zaafarana in the south.

Close enough to Cairo for a day-trip; this popular weekend resort has fine beaches and coves, coral reefs, fishing and water sports.

This is not just a destination for people wanting a suntan and a week at the beach. It is also a place where you can indulge in history. There is ample evidence that the area had its place in history. It includes a famous group of the world's oldest monasteries west of Zafarana on the road to Kuraymat.

The most celebrated ones are those of St. Anthony (c. 251 -356), the founding father of monasticism, and St. Paul, which were built more than 16 centuries ago.

Rituals followed inside the monasteries today have hardly changed in hundreds of years.

A group of historians also believe the northern part of the Mount of Galala El Bahareya was the point from which Moses and the Israelites crossed in their exodus from Egypt's mainland into the Sinai Peninsula. They cite in their claims the fact that the bottom of the Gulf of Suez at this point is elevated.

As the main route to the Indies for Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians, the Red Sea and its shores and ports also have a rich maritime history.

The area is known for its mild climate all year round. Temperatures range between a high of 32 degrees celsius and a low of 9 degrees in January and show a variation of between 36 degrees and 30 degrees in July .

The average rate of humidity is 50 percent. It ranges between a maximum of 72 percent and a minimum 48 percent in December and shows a variation between 58 percent in May .

Rainfall occurs largely in winter months.
The average number of days having rainfall is 11 days a year, with the rain season spanning the November- May period.
The average amount of rainfall stands at about 24 mm . Winds mainly blow from the north and the northwest gusting at an average.

Flora and Fauna paragon of wildlife.
In spite of the low amounts and frequencies of rainfall, the usual desert growth of perennials and grasses is found.

The Eastern Desert receives spares rainfall, which supports a varied vegetation that includes tamariskaccacia and markh ( a leafless, thorn less tree with bare branches and slendertwigs ) as well as great variety of thorny shrub, small succulent , and romantic herbs .

Date and doum palms,both cultivated and sub spontaneous are found in the Oasis.Desert animals include dorcas gazelle , the miniature desert fox , the mountain goat ibex , the Egyptian hare and two kinds of jerboa( a mouse- like rodent with long hind legs for jumping)the Egyptian jackal and still exists.

There are two carnivorous mammals: a spices of wildcats and the striped Egyptian mongoose.

Several varieties of lizards are found, including the large monitor. Because Egypt is rich in its bird life and many birds pass through in large numbers
On their spring and autumn migrations, the area has its good share of more than 200 migrating types as well a more than 150 resident birds.

Lammergeir and golden eagles are residents of the Eastern desert and Sinai. Resident desert birds are a distinct category, numbering about 24 kinds.

That exquisite corridor of tinted mountain and radiant water ...here and nowhere else is the vestibule between the Levant and the Topics ..." E.M.Forster describing the Gulf of Suez, 1923.

The area's topography bestows on it a special lure and charm. It lies in one of the three tires of the eastern desert -the Red Sea Hills and Red Sea Coastal plane.This tier runs from near Suez to the Sudanese border.

The Hills are not a continuous range but consist of sets of interlocking systems more or less alignment. They are geographical complex, with igneous and metamorphic rocks .
As such, it is regarded by Encyclopaedia Britannica as " a sub-region in itself . Ain El Sukhna is famed for two mountins that have religious significance: Attaqa, which rises more than 800 above sea leveland hems in the valleys (wadis ) of Hogouland Chuwaiba.

Galala El Bahareya , the southern periphery of the area , which rises to more than 1,200 m and embarces the valleys of Kuthaib ( 75sq,km), Abul-dorg (68.5sq,km)and smaller ones such as ElMalha and Gar El Malha.

These mountains and valleys constitute a main component in the area's attractiveness for tourists and local holiday-makers.

There are marks and signs showing that this area had its niche in the annals of history.The 4th century monasteries of St. Anthony the Great and St. Paul in the Eastern Desert, not far from Zafarana, are celebrated as the world's oldest.
A group of historians believe it was around this area on the Red Sea that Moses and Israelites crossed into the Sinai in their exodus from Egypt.
As the main route to the Indies for ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians, the Red Sea and its shores and ports have a rich maritime history.

The area could be reached by land through one of the following highways & roads:
- The Cairo - Suez Highway 110 km
- The Qattameya - Ein El Sukhna Highway 95 km
- The Kuramat - Zafaran Road 120 km
- The Hurgada - Zafarana Road 320 km
- The Suez - Ain El Sukhna Road 40 km

Dahab

Dahab

Dahab means gold in Arabic. It is said that this name was given by the Bedouins, who likened the shimmering sands to gold dust.

Dahab, located approximately 100km northwest of Sharm El-Sheikh, is still considered to be one of South Sinai's most treasured diving destinations swarmed by tourists.

It is famous for its golden beaches and deceptively deep diving sites, such as the Blue Hole, the Canyon and the Lighthouse.

Human rights

Human rights

Introduction:

The issue of human rights is one of the main issues currently raised on the political arena with a top priority on both local and global agenda. By the end of World War II, there arose a dire need to achieve world peace and global balance on the world arena.

As many peoples were seeking their independence and establishing their states, there emerged many international institutions and bodies concerned with human rights and the basic freedoms; resulting in the conclusion of a host of international agreements and declarations in various aspects of human rights.

On the local level, Egypt has keenly sought to participate in all international efforts on issues pertaining to human rights, woman and human development as part of an overall modernization process, which began since the early 20^th century.

As a sign of its civiilized commitment to and respect for human rights issues, Egypt has set up the National Council for Motherhood and Childhood (NCMC) in 1989, followed by the National Committee for Women in 1993, the National Council for Women (NCW) in 2000 and the National Council for Human Rights (NCHR) in 2003.

Egypt was also among the first countries to sign the international agreement on child rights in December 1989. It further declared its first decade for the child protection (1989-1999).

The issue of human rights in Egypt has also drawn a remarkable attention over the past few years as part of an increasing international interest in human rights and a rise in the number of the Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and civil society organizations operating in the same field.

The human rights situation in Egypt calls for examining the human rights issues politically and legally by handling the following issues:

• Human rights in Egyptian history

• International agreements and covenants acceded by Egypt.

• Human rights in the Egyptian Constitution.

• Major bodies and institutions operating in the field of human rights in Egypt.

I: Human rights in Egyptian history

The Egyptian Pharaonic civilization had earliest of all civilizations showing respect for human rights through ages. Ancient Egyptians were the first to acknowledge man's right to life. As a case in point, they used to defer execution of a convicted pregnant woman till she had given birth to her baby.

Ancient Egyptians also applied the principle of equality among all citizens as all Egyptians were equal before the law, without distinction between rich and poor, the free people and the slavemen or between the nationals and the foreigners.

As to education, Pharaonic Egypt encouraged both males and females to get proper education.

When Christianity came to Egypt, the Egyptians found in its tolerant teachings salvation from the injustice practiced by the Romans.

The Islamic religion has called for equality among all people and liberation of all human beings from all economic, political and social burdens.

II: Egypt's accession to international agreements and covenants on human rights:

1- International agreements on human rights acceded by Egypt:

A- The anti-slavery agreement of 1926 and its amendment protocol of 1953 as well as the complementary agreement of 1956.

B- The international anti-genocide treaty, signed in 1948.

C- Both agreements on Corvee of 1930, 1957 (International Labor Organizations agreements No. 29, 105)

D- The International Agreement on the Prevention of Women and Children Trafficking of 1950.

E- The International Agreement on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination of 1966.

F- The International Agreements on th eProhibition and Punishment for Racial Discrimination (United Nations, 1973).

G- The Convention on Refugees' Status (United Nations, 1951).

H- The Protocol amending the International Convention Refugees' Status (United Nations, 1967).

I- The International Covenant on Political and Civil Rights (United Nations, 1966).

- The International Covenant on Cultural, Social and Economic Rights (United Nations, 1966).

K- The International Convention on the Prevention of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (United Nations, 1967).

L- The international Convention on Women's Political Rights (United Nations, 1953).

M- The International Convention on combating torture and other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Humiliating Treatment (United Nations, 1984).

N- The International Convention on Child Rights (United Nations, 1990).

O- The International Convention on combating Racial Segregation in Sports (United Nations, 1985).

P- The International Convention on the Rights of Immigrant workers and Family members.

Q- The Optional Protocol to the Convention on Child Rights with regard to Trafficking and Exploiting Children in Prostitution and Pornography (Geneva, 2000).

R- The Optional Protocol to the Convention on Child Rights with regard to child participation in armed conflict (Geneva, 2004).

2- Regional human rights agreements acceded by Egypt:

A- The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, 1980.

B- The Arab Charter on Child Rights, 1983.

C- The African Charter on Child Rights and Welfare, Addis Ababa, 2001.

III: Human rights in the Egyptian Constitution:

1- Human rights principles as included in the First Chapter of the Constitution:

The First Chapter of the Constitution handled all matters related to the State including the following human rights principles:

A- People are the source of powers:

This principle is enshrined in Article 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Sovereignty is for the people alone and they are the source of authority.

The people shall exercise and protect this sovereignty, and safeguard national unity in the manner specified in the Constitution.

B- The principle of political freedom:

This principle is enshrined in Article 4 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: "The political system of the Arab Republic of Egypt is a multiparty one, within the framework of the basic elements and principles of the Egyptian society as stipulated in the Constitution. Political parties are regulated by law.

C- The nationality right principle:

This principle is enshrined in Article 6 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: "Egyptian nationality is defined by the law."

2- The human rights principles as included in the Second Chapter of the Constitution:

The Second Chapter of the Constitution, entitled " BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE SOCIETY”, handles some of the human rights principles as follows:

1- The principle of equal opportunities and just distribution of public burdens:

This principle is mentioned in Article 8 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee equality of opportunity to all citizens.

2- The principle of family, motherhood and childhood protection as well as youth welfare:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 9&10 of the Constitution. Article No. 9 stipulates that:" The family is the basis of the society founded on religion, morality and patriotism."

"The State is keen to preserve the genuine character of the Egyptian family-with what it embodies of values and traditions-while affirming and developing this character in the relations within the Egyptian society."

Article No. 10 stipulates that:" The State shall guarantee the protection of motherhood and childhood, take care of children and youth and provide the suitable conditions for the development of their talents."

C- The principle of equality between man and woman:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 11 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the proper coordination between the duties of woman towards the family and her work in the society, considering her equal with man in the fields of political, social, cultural and economic life without violation of the rules of Islamic jurisprudence."

D- The principle of right to work and prevention of forced labour:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 13 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Work is right, a duty and an honour ensured by the State.

Workers who excel in their field of work shall receive the appreciation of the State and the society.

No work shall be imposed on the citizens, except by virtue of the law, for the performance of a public service and in return for a fair remuneration."

E- The right to assume public jobs:
This principle is enshrined in Article No. 14 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Public offices are the right of all citizens and an assignment for their occupants in the service of the people.

The State guarantees their (the occupants) protection and the performance of their duties in safeguarding the interests of the people.

They may not be dismissed by other than the disciplinary way, except in the cases specified by the law."

F- The principle of providing health, social and cultural services as well as social insurance:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 16 &17 of the Constitution. Article No. 16 stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee cultural, social and health services, and work to ensure them for the villages in particular in an easy and regular manner in order to raise their standard."

Article No. 17 stipulates that “The State- shall guarantee social and health insurance services and all the citizens have the right to pensions in cases of incapacity, unemployment and old-age, in accordance with the law."

G- The principle of free education in the different grades as well as making it obligatory in the primary grade:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 18&20 of the Constitution. Article No. 18 stipulates that:" Education is a right guaranteed by the State."

"It is obligatory in the primary stage and the State shall work to extend obligation to other stages."

"The State shall supervise all branches of education and guarantee the independence of universities and scientific research centres, with a view to linking all this with the requirements of society and production."

Article No. 20 stipulates that: " Education in the State educational institutions shall be free of charge in its various stages.”

H- The principle of equitable distribution of national income, guaranteeing a minimum level of wages, solving the unemployment problem and improving living standards:

This principle is mentioned in Articles No. 23&25 of the Constitution. Article No. 23 stipulates that: “The national economy shall be organised in accordance with a comprehensive development plan which ensures raising the national income, fair distribution, raising the standard of living, eliminating unemployment, increasing work opportunities, connecting wages with production, fixing a minimum and a maximum limit for wages in a manner which guarantees lessening the disparities between incomes."

Article No. 25 stipulates that: “Every citizen shall have a share in the national revenue to be defined by the law in accordance with his work or his unexploiting ownership."

I- The right of safeguarding the private property:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 34&35 of the Constitution. Article No. 34 stipulates that: “Private ownership shall be safeguarded and may not be put under sequestration except in the cases specified in the law and with a judicial decision. It may not be expropriated except for the general good and against a fair compensation in accordance with the law. The right of inheritance is guaranteed in it."

Article No. 36 stipulates that: “General sequestration of funds shall be prohibited."

"Private sequestration shall not be allowed except with a judicial decision."

3- The human rights principles as included in the Third Chapter of the Constitution:

The Third Chapter, entitled “PUBLIC FREEDOMS, RIGHTS AND DUTIES”, tackles many principles established in the international covenants on human rights as follows:

A- Achieving equality in terms of rights and duties and making no segregation or racial discrimination:

This principle is enshrined in Article 40 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “All citizens are equal before the law. They have equal public rights and duties without discrimination between them due to race, ethnic origin, language, religion or creed."

B- The principle of right and protection of freedom:

This principle is endorsed in Article No. 41 of the Constitution, stipulating that: “Individual freedom is a natural right and shall not be touched.”

C- The principle of treating those undergoing restricted freedoms in a way that safeguards their honor and prevention of their physical or moral torture or jail in places of detention beyond prison laws. In addition, evidence taken by force or under threat shall not be considered valid:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 42 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any person arrested, detained or his freedom restricted shall be treated in the manner concomitant with the preservation of his dignity."

"No physical or moral harm is to be inflicted upon him."

"He may not be detained or imprisoned except in places defined by laws organising prisons."

"If a confession is proved to have been made by a person under any of the aforementioned forms of duress or coercion, it shall be considered invalid and futile."

D- The principle of the inadmissibility of performing scientific or medical experiments on man against his free will:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 43 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any medical or scientific experiment may not be undergone on any person without his free consent.”

E- The principle of the sanctity of home and respect of the citizen's privacy:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 44&45. Article No. 44 stipulates that: “Homes shall have their sanctity and they may not be entered or inspected except by a causal judicial warrant prescribed by the law.”

Article No. 45 stipulates that: “The law shall protect the inviolability of the private life of citizens."

"Correspondence, wires, telephone calls an other means of communication shall have their own sanctity and secrecy and may not be confiscated or monitored except by a causal judicial warrant and for a definite period according to the provisions of the law."

F- The principle of the freedom of belief and free practice of religious rituals:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 46 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the freedom of belief and the freedom of practice of religious rites.”

G- The principle of freedom of opinion, expression, mass media and publication:

This principle is enshrined in Articles No. 47&48 of the Constitution. Article No. 47 stipulates that: “Freedom of opinion is guaranteed."

"Every individual has the right to express his opinion and to publicise it verbally or in writing or by photography or by other means within the limits of the law."

"Self-criticism and constructive criticism is the guarantee for the safety of the national structure."

Article No. 48 stipulates that: “Freedom of the press, printing, publication and mass media shall be guaranteed."

"Censorship on newspapers is forbidden as well as notifying, suspending or cancelling them by administrative methods."

"In a state of emergency or in time of war a limited censorship may be imposed on the newspapers, publications and mass media in matters related to public safety or purposes of national security in accordance with the law."

H- The principle of freedom of scientific research and cultural, artistic and literary innovation:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 49 of the Constitution. It stipulates that: “The State shall guarantee the freedom of scientific research and literary, artistic and cultural invention and provide the necessary means for its realization."

I- The principle of free movement and inadmissibility of citizen's deportation:

This principle is mentioned in Articles No. 50&51 of the Constitution. Article No. 50 stipulates that: “No citizen may be prohibited from residing in any place and no citizen may be forced to reside in a particular place, except in the cases defined by the law.”

Article No. 51 stipulates that: “No citizen may be deported from the country or prevented from returning to it.”

J- The principle of granting the right of political asylum to foreign refugees, who are suppressed due to defending the peoples' interest, human rights, peace and justice and banning the extradition of any political refugee:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 53 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right to political asylum shall be guaranteed by the State for every foreigner persecuted for defending the peoples' interests, human rights, peace or justice."

"The extradition of political refugees is prohibited."

K- The principle of right to private assembly:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 54 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to peaceable and unarmed private assembly, without the need for prior notice."

"Security men should not attend these private meetings."

"Public meetings, processions and gatherings are allowed within the limits of the law."

L- The principle of right to participate in and form societies:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 55 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to form societies as defined in the law."

"The establishment of societies whose activities are hostile to the social system, clandestine or have a military character is prohibited."

M- The principle of right to establish unions and syndicates:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 56 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The creation of syndicates and unions on a democratic basis is a right guaranteed by law, and should have a moral entity."

"The law regulates the participation of syndicates and unions in carrying out the social programmes and plans, raising the standard of efficiency, consolidating the socialist behavior among their members, and safeguarding their funds."

"They are responsible for questioning their members about their behavior in exercising their activities according to certain codes of morals, and for defending the rights and liberties of their members as defined in the law."

N- The principle of right to run for elections:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 62 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Citizens shall have the right to vote, nominate and express their opinions in referendums according to the provisions of the law."

"Their participation in public life is a national duty."

4- The human rights principles as included in the Fourth Chapter of the Constitution:

The Fourth Chapter of the Constitution, entitled “SOVEREIGNTY OF THE LAW”, contains many important aspects pertaining to human rights and freedoms as follows:

A- The principle of the judiciary independence and immunity:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 65 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The State shall be subject to law."

"The independence and immunity of the judiciary are two basic guarantees to safeguard rights and liberties."

B- The principle of individuality of the penalty and that no crime or penalty is to be applied unless under a law. In addition, no penalty is to take effect unless under a judiciary ruling:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 66 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Penalty shall be personal."

"There shall be no crime or penalty except by virtue of the law."

"No penalty shall be inflicted except by a judicial sentence."

"Penalty shall be inflicted only for acts committed subsequent to the promulgation of the law prescribing them."

C- The principle of the innocence of the accused until proven guilty under legal prosecution that guarantees his right to defend himself:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 67 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any defendant is innocent until he is proved guilty before a legal court, in which he is granted the right to defend himself."

"Every person accused of a crime must be provided with counsel for his defense."

D- The principle of right of litigation to all people, resorting to court, guaranteeing speedy rulings in legal cases and banning the exclusion of actions from the censorship of the judiciary:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 68 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right to litigation is inalienable for all, and every citizen has the right to refer to his competent judge."

"The State shall guarantee the accessibility of the judicature organs to litigants, and the rapidity of statuting on cases."

"Any provision in the law stipulating the immunity of any act or administrative decision from the control of the judicature is prohibited."

E- The principle of the right to self-defense and affording it to those financially unable to do so:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 69 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “The right of defense in person or by mandate is guaranteed."

"The Law shall grant the financially incapable citizens the means to resort to justice and defend their rights."

G- The right to take immediate action due to arrest or to communicate with those who can do an action and the right to complain to the concerned parties:

This principle is enshrined in Article No. 71 of the Constitution, which stipulates that: “Any person arrested or detained should be informed, forthwith with the reasons for his arrest or detention."

"He has the right to communicate, inform, and ask the help of anyone as prescribed in the law."

"He must be faced, as soon as possible, with the charges directed against him."

"Any person may lodge a complaint to the courts against any measure taken to restrict his individual freedom."

"The law regulates the right of complaint in a manner ensuring a ruling regarding it within a definite period, or else release is imperative."

Fourth: Major human rights organizations and institutions operating in Egypt

1- Governmental organizations: -

"The National Council for Human Rights"

It was set up on June 12, 2003 under law No. 94 of 2003. Affiliated to the Shura Council, it aims at the promotion and protection of the human rights values, promoting awareness of human rights values and guaranteeing their freedom.
The Council is chaired by Dr. Boutrus Ghali with Dr. Ahmed Kamal Abul-Magd as Deputy-Chief and 25 public figures as members.

Goals:
The Council is seen as a new step to enhance democracy and ensure freedom of citizens from the standpoint of human rights, party pluralism, public freedoms and political reform. It aims at:-

- Protecting the Egyptian rights at home and promoting Egypt's image abroad by seeking to abolish all freedom-restricting legislations.
- Cooperating with human rights non-governmental organizations in Egypt which shoulder heavy burdens in this domain.

Its importance:
Egypt has always been keen on respecting human rights and strictly confronting any related individual violations that may occur. The need to establish a national institution to play a key role in this regard had been raised. The establishment of the National Council for Human Rights to tackle the practical, academic and legal sides of the human rights came as a forwardable response.

I: On practical terms
The Council monitors any violations in human rights and receives complaints regarding violations anywhere in Egypt.

II: On academic terms
The Council organizes seminars to raise awareness on human rights and individuals' rights and duties.

III: On legal terms
Under the new world order and globalization era, the international community is working to ensure respect to the rules of human rights and guarantee their application by all countries. The National Council for Human Rights is able to follow up and catch up with international development in the field of human rights.

Functions:-
- To lay down a national action plan to reinforce and develop the protection of human rights and propose useful means to achieve this plan.
- To receive complaints from citizens and organizations and channel them to concerned authorities.
- To follow up the ratification of international conventions and agreements related to human rights.
- To join Egyptian delegations to the national and international fora concerned with human rights. In addition, the council takes part in preparing country reports that required to be periodically submitted to UN human rights' commissions and other agencies in application of the international accords.
- To coordinate with state institutions concerned with human rights.
- To participate in disseminating the human rights cultures and raising citizens' awareness of the human rights values.

2- Non-governmental Societies:-
Acknowledging the civil society role in the field of human rights and other social and political fields, the state gave the opportunity for individuals and groups to establish NGOs to work in the field of human rights with full freedom.

A case in point of these societies are:

A- The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR):

EOHR was established in 1985 by a group of journalists and public figures interested in the field of human rights.

Goals:-

It aims at enhancing respect to the human rights and basic freedoms in a way to goes in line with tenets of divine religions and the basic principles of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and other International Conventions. It also works for defending individuals' rights against violations and abuses of these covenants and deepening citizens' awareness of their lawful rights, regardless of their creed or political affiliation.

Since 1990, the organization has issued annual reports on human rights in Egypt. It also issues a bulletin and statements reporting an forms of human rights violations.

B- Arab Organization for Human Rights

It was established in 1983. The first meeting of the AOHR founding committee was held on Dec. 1, 1983 in Cyprus. Its first plenary session met in Khartoum on January 30-31, 1987.

Goals:-

It aims at promoting respect to human and peoples' rights and the political freedoms in the Arab home for all citizens in accordance with the principles of the World Declaration of Human Rights and other related international charters. It also works for defending rights of individuals and groups against any violations.

C- The Arab Program for Human Rights Activists:

The Arab program for human rights activists was established in March 1997.

Goals:

- Protecting human rights activists against violations.
- Working with human rights activists to exchange experiences and skills and provide mutual protection against human rights violations.

D- Cairo Center for Human Rights Studies:

The Cairo Center for Human Rights Studies is a scientific, research and intellectual institution.

Goals:

- Bolstering human rights in the Arab world.
- Analyzing difficulties that block the application of international human rights law and disseminating human rights culture in the Arab societies.
- Promoting human rights culture.
- Drawing up scientific and educational programs and holding conferences, seminars and workshops on human rights.
http://www.sis.gov.eg

Victory ... Peace …Development

Victory ... Peace …Development
On the sixth of October 1973, our Egyptian Armed Forces engaged in a battle for honour; liberating the Egyptian land. By virtue of the leadership wisdom, accurate planning and the soldiers' courage, a military miracle took place. Our Egyptian Air Force flew over the enemy's fortifications launching, successfully, the first air strike that opened the gate of triumph, confused the enemy ranks and severed the alleged long arm of Israel.

That was when our troops crossed the Suez Canal and destroyed the Barlev line by which Israel had terrified the whole world, in turn they themselves believed the lie of the myth.

And that was when the Egyptian soldier managed to face the enemy's heavy artillery; it was courage that put an end to the war and made a coup in the military and strategic concepts.

Breaking the myth of the invincible Israel, was the incident that paved the way before the political and psychological balance and opened the gate for peace; the matter for which a battle of another kind was a prerequisite. Egypt had another battle seeking for a comprehensive peace and Arab-Israeli coexistence; the result was the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty.

The October victory unleashed energies for construction and modernization. A third battle was waged; establishing a modern country. The Egyptian revival, under the sponsorship of President Mubarak, swept. The whole world has testified to our economic reform program that works successfully. They hailed our management in achieving the infrastructure, production and high-level standards and growth rates, besides the economic boom.

Egypt looks to the past only to remember its martyrs and the great sacrifices of its men. As to the future, Egypt is planning on solid bases and sound foundations, equipped with the faith and determination of people to continue the victorious march started in October 1973.

Of all Arab countries, Egypt bore the brunt of three decades of military hostilities with Israel. Seeking peace, Egypt was sincere out of unshakable conviction that peace should prevail if the long-volatile Middle East area is to start catching up with the economic locomotive vigorously chugging ahead everywhere else.

This may explain why Cairo has been in the fore of the world countries striving to make peace a reality in this region. And in doing so, Egypt takes no sides, rather siding with a durable and lasting peace, which could brighten up the prospects in the region and consign animosity to history.

Without establishing this peace, any talk about economic boom and cooperation in the Middle East would be day-dreaming, if not political self-deception.

Egypt's Military Museums

Egypt's Military Museums

The Military Museum
The Military Museum in Cairo is famous for its rich collection and historical building which was originally a palace during the reign of Mohamed Ali, the founder of the royal family that ruled Egypt from 1805 till 1952. It was established in 1937 in the old building of the Ministry of Defense based on the idea of Abdel Raham Zaki, one of the most famous military historians in Egypt. It was recently modernized in cooperation with North Korea and President Mubarak reopened it on 29 November, 1993. It records the history of the Egyptian army since the Pharaonic times till now. It is divided into three wings and three storeys, each having several halls. It exhibits the development in weaponry and military equipment and uniforms, besides 220 paintings of famous battles, as well as the most important military decorations, orders and medals.

Al-Magd Hall:
Al Magd Hall exhibits the flags used since the Ottoman era up till now including the flags of the Republic, the main branches of the Armed Forces and the historical flags of the military zones, leaderships and the units which participated in October War.

Clothes Hall:
It exhibits the development of the soldiers' uniform since the start of the Islamic ear up till now.

Arms Hall
Knives, swords and guns are on display in this hall which includes Artillery Hall which shows the guns' development throughout all eras.

Historical Display Halls

It includes a number of Pharaonic era halls and displays the events of the ancient Egyptian state as regards arms' types, soldiers wrestling trainings, the victory of King Narmar and dioramas for King Tuhutmos III, Ramses II who signed the first ever treaty in the world in 1270 BC.

Islamic Era
It exhibits the events seen in Egypt since Amr Ibn el-As conquered it till the battle of Hitten led by Saladin against the Crusaders as well as dioramas showing the capture of King Louis IX and another diorama for Ain Galot battle and the Islamic battle of Badr.

Mohamed Ali Pasha Hall
It exhibits the family tree of Mohamed Ali Pasha and paintings for the Citadel's Massacre, Ship Building House as well as diorama for the Suez Canal from opening to nationalization.

War Hall
It includes many intersected halls showing every war which Egypt engaged in since 1948 up till 1973 as well as dioramas for Ras el-Esh Battle, Port Said War and Elat's destroyer.

October Victory Hall
It exhibits the achievements of 1973 October War in addition to the weaponry which participated in the war. It includes air forces hall, air defense hall, infantry hall, naval forces hall, paratroops hall and coastal guards' hall.

Martyrs Hall
It exhibits the names of the martyrs of October War and other wars who sacrificed their lives to realize a great historical victory.

Military Museum in Northern Sinai
It was established in 1993 in an appreciation for the efforts exerted by Sinai citizens to defend their territories against the foreign invasion from the Pharaonic era till the modern era. It comprises one wing which includes four sections: The first section contains artistic paintings from Sinai citizens which record the popular heroic acts. The second section is a documentary one which records all information about the history and the battles of the popular resistance. The third section highlights Sinai history and the fourth section highlights the achievements and Sinai economic and tourist spots.

Al-Alamein War Museum

Al-Alamein War Museum is located 105 kilometers west of Alexandria. It is placed within the military areas of El Alumni. It was opened in 1956, during the tenure of late President Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Built as a memorial of the Battle of Al Alamein, between the British and the Germans in 1942, and the battles that took place in South Africa in World War II, Al-Alamein Museum was renewed and reopened in 1992 under President Hosni Mubarak. The museum is one of the best places to visit in order to understand the story of World War II in Egypt.

The museum contains records of all the events. Even before entering the Museum area, there stand huge army tanks and other weapons in the courtyard. Visitors can view the heavy equipment, go inside a tank or an army vehicle, or even jump up and sit on the top of a tank.

The museum consists of five halls, each of which is dedicated to one of the four countries involved in the war, Great Britain, Italy, Germany, and Egypt. There is also a mixed hall that contains a number of war items.

The Egyptian hall:
It shows how Egypt helped the Allies during the war. There are statues of Egyptian soldiers who helped British troops.

The British hall:
Focus is on how the British were able to defeat the Italians and the Germans in North Africa.

The Italian hall:
Like the other halls, it contains statues of Italian soldiers wearing their uniform.

The German hall:
It highlights the part played by the German army in the battle of Alamein and in the other battles fought in North Africa in World War ll.

The most interesting of all the museum's halls is the mixed hall which showcases items belonging to the warring parties. The small models at the center demonstrate the important battles between the British and Italians in the beginning, and the British and the Germans later. The hall has one part that tells the history of each country and why they were involved in the war. Photographs are hung showing real battles walls; the history of the three countries and the reasons they had for going to war is also presented together with information about them.

The October 1973 War Panorama

The October 1973 War Panorama is a museum, which relates the battles of Egypt's greatest victory of modern times. The idea of the panorama was first introduced during President Hosni Mubarak's visit to North Korea in 1983.

The project was opened by the President on October 5, 1989. The building and grounds stand on some 31 thousand square meters; a 6-square meter parking area is attached.

Weaponry used by the Egyptian troops and Israeli weapons seized in the war is showcased in the open display area. The cylinder-shaped main building is 44m x 27m intersected by a 10.5m-iron and copper tower. It consists of four halls:

The circular hall:
which highlights the achievements of the Egyptian Armed Forces in the period from 1967 to 1973.

Hall 2:
in which the crossing of the Suez Canal is graphically shown.

Hall 3:
which showcases the achievements of the various branches of the Army during the October War.

Hall 3 is a library with a reading hall attached.

Panorama shows are presented in Arabic, English, German, Italian, French and Japanese.

The 6th of October Victory

The 6th of October Victory

While so many are Egypt's great events and so fraught is its deep-rooted history with memorable days, of all days and events, the 6th of October rises out so lofty as Egypt's most unforgettable, most valuable and most influential. Thus, Egypt will continue to celebrate the anniversary of the 1973 glorious victory, through which the 1967 setback was rectified, the honor and dignity of the nation regained, and the Egyptian armed forces were crowned with laurel.

On that glorious day, Egypt's armed forces regained their pride and self-confidence, as they had successfully completed a stupendous military feat, consummated mission impossible, thus deterring forces of aggression.

Putting an end to the state of no-war, no-peace, the Egyptian Army had obviously managed to change the whole situation in the Middle East. It had proved to the whole world that the Egyptians were able to achieve a daring military action, based on courageous decision, careful planning and preparation, and valiant performance.

This, as a matter of fact, involved a strategic, preemptive strike, crowning the sacrifices of the Egyptian people and their Armed Forces with an eye-catching victory that will ever remain a source of pride for the coming generations. On that great day, the will for challenge triumphed and the Egyptian people engaged most successfully in a battle of life or death.

Having refused to give up to fait accompli, they stood fast against numerous attempts geared to instill despair and discourage them. The people also obstinately staved off scheming by a world-wide collusion that attempted to undermine their ability to liberate their land, therefore, all Egyptians decided to rush onto the battle of destiny, armed with trust in Allah and confidence in their Armed Forces.

They were all confident that the bravery of men would offset shortage of weaponry and equipment, as they were inevitably fighting a fair war, in defense of honor, survival and in retaliation for dignity.

On October 6, 1973, the Egyptian Armed Forces mounted a surprise attack against the Israeli army stationed in Sinai and the Golan Heights. As a result, Egypt regained full sovereignty over the Suez Canal and was able to recover part of Sinai. The October victory led to destroying the myth of Israel's invincible army. Most important, however, is that it paved the way to the Camp David Treaty in September 1978.

The 1973 war is the fourth round in the Arab-Israeli armed struggle since 1948. In 1967, Israel occupied Syria's Golan Heights, the West Bank and Jerusalem, Sinai and the Suez Canal and for six years, it spent a lot on fortifying its positions on the East Bank, in what later came to be known as the Barlev Line.

Preparations for the October victory began very early in 1968 with the war of attrition. After President Anwar al-Sadat assumed power in 1970 and Israel having rejected the Rogers Initiative, war was the only option to recover Sinai and Suez Canal. A surprise attack was carried on both the Egyptian and Syrian fronts. Intelligence Authorities in both countries relied on a plan to confuse the enemy.

At exactly 14:00 hours on October 6, 1973, 222 Egyptian fighters crossed the Suez Canal, undetected. Their target: radar stations, air defense batteries, fortified points on the Barlev line, oil refineries and ammunition depots. Meanwhile, Egyptian artillery across the Canal turned the front line into an inferno in what was a show of force not soon to be forgotten. 10,500 rockets were fired in the first 60 seconds at an average of 175 rockets/seconds. 1000 rubber boats crossed the Canal carrying 8000 soldiers who climbed the Barlev Line and stormed into enemy defenses. The Egyptian Engineer Corps built the first bridge 6 hours after the war began. 8 hours later they cut a path into the Barlev Line, set up another 12 bridges and operated 30 ferries.

The success of the air strike, at the beginning of the war, made it possible for Egyptian soldiers to penetrate the Barlev Line in no more than six hours causing heavy losses among Israeli troops. But had it not been for the air bridge of military equipment and supplies launched by the US on October 10, the Israeli Army would have been heavily defeated.

On October 22, 1973, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 338 calling on all parties to stop fighting, to cease all firing and terminate all military activity and begin negotiations aimed at establishing a just and durable peace in the Middle East.

The war demonstrated that:
• The Egyptians could mount a military attack, based on a brave decision, well-planned and properly-prepared.

• The myth of the invincible Israeli Army could be destroyed.

• The policy of imposing a status quo was invalid.

• Arab national security was threatened, a feeling which brought all Arabs together.

• Sinai should be reconstructed, linked to the Nile Valley and turned into a strategic region shielding Egypt from the east.

The Egyptian people, however, were not entrapped into domestic conflicts rather they joined hands with the army sharing up their capabilities and placing the liberation of land on top of all priorities. Thus, the armed forces had managed to shatter down the myth of invincible power as well as the security doctrines based on that power. They further dismantled all barriers, blockade and lines earlier set up to prevent the people from liberating their land.

This gave proof to every one that military supremacy was not an exclusive monopoly of a specific party. It also proved that good Egyptian military planning, indomitable courage of Egyptian warriors, and their belief in the nobility of their goals, were stronger and bigger than any gaps in capability and sophistication in equipment and military plant.

The October War proved that the aggression of force could never protect security, nor could it guarantee stability and that racial supremacy was just an illusion and fantasy. It also proved that the international conditions no matter how over powering could never keep any people away from their legitimate hopes or force them to accept injustice and aggression or a status quo that might encroach upon their legitimate rights. The will of peoples is much stronger than forces of oppression and suppression no matter how great. The October war had a crucial impact on the prospects of the Middle East.

This war proved that it was impossible to impose status quo, to maintain a state of no-peace-no-war, to hold monopoly of military supremacy or to force peoples of the region to accept occupation. This war also proved that real security could not be guaranteed by geographical expansion at the expense of others, by claims and practices of power no matter how arrogant nor by attempts to break up peoples, will so as to give up to status quo. A war for peace

The glorious October war further crystallized the will for peace in the Middle East region and opened the door wide before a historic reconciliation between the Arabs and Israel. In addition, it gave a beam of hope for putting an end to the vertigo of war and devastation that had drained off the region's resources for more than half a century.

October Victory .. the road To peace

October Victory .. the road To peace

The battle of October victory... The Road to Peace

The Armed Forces Chief-of-Staff, Major General Dr Taha Al-Magdoub, wrote:

The victory of the Egyptian will power in the October 1973 war was the main factor to a possible Arab-Israeli peace.

Before peace, the victorious and the defeated party formed an imbalanced equation of power that could not render balanced peace. Hence, the option for war was indispensable to the Egyptians and Arabs.

There was no other alternative to fix this equation and bring the supercilious foe back on the grounds of reality which entails peace built on justice, logic and the respect of the rights of all parties, rather than peace based on the rights of the arrogant force, occupation of lands and indifference to the rights of others.

The following article by strategist Dr Taha Al-Magdoub elaborates on this issue based on his book: "The War of October... The Road to a Comprehensive Settlement".

Over more than two decades of the revolution era and the contemporary history of Egypt, specifically from 1952 to 1973, Egypt underwent three unique war experiences taking the form of fierce battles.

These battles waged in 1956, 1967, and 1973 had various dimensions and repercussions. They forced the four-year revolution to go into armed struggle and international conflicts.

But the revolution managed to overcome these crises in a bid to achieve freedom, independence, security and peace, for the sake of the unity and stability of the Arab nation.

In 1956, Egypt was stormed by a major conspiracy schemed by two major powers, namely Britain and France, as well as Israel.

The latter seized the opportunity to wage a ferocious aggressive war against Egypt under the pretext that Egypt exercised its legitimate right, declaring the nationalization of the Suez Canal. The nationalization was launched by Egypt in order to build herself and erect her High Dam in Aswan in a bid to realise growth and prosperity.

The three belligerent States wanted to reach one agreed-upon end; to oust the new regime in Egypt, to impede the wheel of progress and deprive the Egyptian people of the right to development and life.

Egypt succeeded to overcome that experience, defying the aggressors, and her foes were incapable of realizing their target. They, consequently, had to make Egypt undergo a bigger and harsher experience, storming another two Arab States; Jordan and Syria.

Their end that time had been more decisive and ambitious. They did not strike Egypt alone, but the whole Arab nation, represented in the three States, giving the greenlight to Israel for the establishment of the Greater Hebrew State. In 1967, Israel attacked Egypt, Syria and Jordan, with the support of a superpower, the US, under a similar pretext as claimed in the previous experience.

The third experience had been different in comparison with the two earlier experiences. Egypt had to restore the occupied lands after the assimilation of the bitter experience, believing, on one hand, that her land cannot be restored and peace gained while in the position of defeat. On the other hand, the military action, amid the contemporary world developments, cannot play as the sole factor in the settlement of any struggle.

Egypt had a conviction that a host of approaches can lead to full success, provided that they are backed by the will, high morale, and insistence on reaching the end in the course of the so-called "comprehensive strategy," that applies various tools executed over a long term..

The Egyptian experience achieved resounding success. Egypt won and had a say, brushing aside the stigma of defeat and making one of the most glorious military achievements in October 1973. Egypt vanquished the myth that Israel is undefeatable, cutting her long arm policy and infiltrating her safe lines.

Egypt opted for genuine peace to crown the Egyptian victory when Late President Anwar Sadat stood under the dome of the People's Assembly on October 16, 1973, calling for a ceasefire and the convocation of a conference on peace to probe all-out settlement. The late President said global change entail defusing disputes and opting for peace as a common end of humanity. Peace cannot be reached through good offices only, but through a solid political will adherent to and insistent on the goal.

The essence of struggle, whatever its level is, is the struggle of will power based on objective and rational considerations. The willpower for achieving settlement should be available in the parties of a struggle through showing readiness to resolve contradictions and accept compromises. In the meantime, they should search for mutual interests and common values to give further momentum to the peace march. The Arab-Israeli struggle entered the orbit of peace 25 years ago, in the wake of the October victory.

After the June 1967 war the Security Council issued resolution number242 in November 1967, considered as an axis to the peace process until now. The resolution stipulates the non-legitimacy of capturing lands by force and admitted that the parties to the struggle are entitled to exist within safe borders. It also stipulates the withdrawal from the lands occupied by Israel in 1967.

Neverthless, the parties to the struggle have never reached an acceptable solution due to the lack of power and the incapability of the approaches used by the international community to impose its will on the parties involved. The Egyptian choice for peace highlighted a deep vision for the future and crystalized a new strategy, featuring high both comprehensiveness and flexibility, whether on the level of setting the goals or selecting the tools of movement.

The October victory set the primary will for movement which was the first organised effort, standing on the scientific method in the management of conflicts, in a bid to forge it ahead to the circle of peaceful settlement and launch not only normalisation, but the cooperation of neighbouring countries. The Arab-Israeli struggle due to the victory of October entertained understandings that stemmed from a clear Egyptian point of view different in core and crux from the stagnant methods that had driven the Arab causes to the caves of negligence.

The US, on its part, out of keenness on the security of Israel and conviction that the Israeli dream vanished by the new Arab facts, exerted strenuous efforts to open an immediate dialogue with Egypt through the tours of the then Secretary of State Henry kissinger. The dialogue kicked off with the six-item agreement in November 1973. The first disengagement of forces agreement then followed in January 1974. Finally, the second disengagement of forces agreement was concluded with Egypt in September 1975, leading to the Egyptian peace initiative in 1977 when late President Sadat visited Jerusalem.

The visit represented a climax in the peace march leading to all-out settlement.

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier

The Memorial of the Unknown Soldier is located in Nasr City and it was made in the wake of October War in 1973 to memorize the sacrifices of the brave Egyptian soldiers. In the first anniversary of October War, late President Sadat issued directives to make a memorial to the martyrs of the war and to memorize the Unknown Soldier. An artistic competition was held for the purpose in which artist Sami Rafi, a professor in the Faculty of Fine Arts in Cairo who obtained his PhD from the Faculty of Fine Arts in Vienna, won the best design.

The memorial was made on 25/5/1975 and finished on 15/9/1975; it is four walls intersected at the peak in a pyramidal shape, referring to Egypt's Pyramids, the symbol of eternity. The height of the wall is 31, 6 meters and its thickness is 1, 9 meter and the width hit 14, 3 meters at the base.

Written on the memorial are the common names used by the Egyptians such as Mohamed, Adel, Gerges, Amer, Taher, Makram, Zaki, el-Qenawi, Abdellah, Abdel Samad, Ibrahim etc.

On October 6, 1975, President Sadat and then vice-president Hosni Mubarak opened the memorial and laid wreaths at the Unknown Soldier Memorial.

In 1981, the funeral of late President Sadat was mourned and he was buried in the same location where his sepulcher is next to that of the Unknown Soldier. Egypt's guests and visitors are keen to visit this memorial and lay wreaths at the Unknown Soldier Memorial and Sadat's sepulcher as well.

http://www.sis.gov.eg/VR/october/english/6.htm

At Noon The Myth Was Shattered

At Noon The Myth Was Shattered

Ahmed Bah'a Eldeen

This book is just an attempt to put the stage of the Arab-Israeli conflict within its proper historical frame by seeking for the facts and witnesses in western and Israeli sources. It is the book "At Noon the Myth Was Shattered" by Ahmad Bahauldin, issued in February 1974. What is it all about ?!

The book consists of nine chapters; every chapter has a topic that reflects its content of facts. There is also analysis for some incidents in order to make reader understand and appreciate the comprehensiveness of the situation.

On the war of June 1967, the author writes, "you cannot talk about October war and appreciate it as it should without hinting at the war of 1967 and its effects. Both wars, actually, are two battles in one war.

The war of June 1967 has deeply affected the style of political and military work and even the spirit of peoples.

"The war of June 1967 was just a trap for Arabs. Israel put a plan in 11 years; their interests in the Middle East are the interests of super-power countries. But we cannot deny our responsibility for the defeat".

The author says, "honestly, if we are trying to analyze the reasons of defeat, we have to categorize all and every negative act in our contemporary life. Anyway, we should admit that the defeat was the sperm of the Israeli fable".

Elements of the fable
"Israel tried to make itself a myth or a legend; a fabulous story and a mysterious figure that could be loved or hated, but anyway it should be frightening for the whole globe as its being unconquerable." Such option was not strange for such people who think themselves to be God's chosen people.

"Israel advertised for a complicated legend consisting of political, economic and military elements; Zionism is a legend that managed, in 50 years, to turn dreams into facts. And Jew is another category of mankind who can turn dust into gold, ruins into cities and swamps into green zone, once they touch them.

"Though such legend could be easily denied, that historical era helped Zionists to achieve their goals in Palestine. But we have to assert that the progress they made is not that fabulous; there are other countries that managed to make such progress in a shorter time.

"The military element of the fable was the most dangerous on the spirits of Arabs, despite its not being the only decisive in the race track. We can understand that the Israeli propaganda, firstly, was sharper than their artillery; they described the war of June 1967 as the real gap between Arabs and Israel, and the world should completely believe in such saying.

"Every Israeli General became a fable and a mysterious character, every soldier is a hero, every citizen is James Bond. The Israeli man is the new superman, however, Arabs are the most fool and degrading and even the most stupid men who cannot understand the radical changes in the world.

"Within the frame of such concept, books, movies, novels and articles spread out violently everywhere; the massive propaganda succeeded in convincing the international public opinion that their legend is a fact. Such poison sneaked, in maximum dose, into the spirits of Arabs which was the actual goal.

"The psychological obstacle was superior to the dusty one of Barlev. Now that Arabs believe that the enemy is unconquerable, they cannot compare themselves to the lofty Israeli people who are competent in all fields, especially the military field.

"The Israeli front line had the feeling of upset-possessed Arabs, and they could not imagine that their legend will turn into an overdose wine that made them lose their minds and soon they became the victims of their lie."

The war of Attrition
Israel expected Arab's surrender after the war of June 1967. Moshe Dayan; the then Israeli Minister of War said that he was at his home, waiting the reactions of Arabs. But Arabs rejected the stepping down of the late leader, Gamal Abdel-Naser; went out in the middle of the night denying and condemning the surrender and asking for a firm standing against the enemy.

Such firm standing should be asserted practically; on the first of July 1967, the Israeli artillery and air force failed to capture the position "Ras El-Ash" at the eastern bank of the Suez Canal. Heroes of the famous battle "Ras El-Ash", were only 30 soldiers and a limited popular resistance at the west bank.

Battles of resistance came frequently; on July 14,1967, a small Egyptian torpedo boat managed to scuttle the famous destroyer; Ilat, in a battle that made a radical change in the history of the naval thought. Such battle was followed by the aching decision of declaring the cities of the Suez Canal evacuated.

Such period of strife gave the opportunity of restructuring the armed forces. The Egyptian citizens participated, with all their potentialities in the process of restructuring without giving heed for the Israeli mockery.

Now that the stage of confrontation ended, the stage of deterrence has been started in September1968, to reaffirm the determination of the Egyptian will.

In such stage soldiers have practiced good experience that made them competent. They made many successful attempts in the way and technique of crossing.

The author of our book gives scores of examples of the courageous battles through which the Egyptians have scored their desired goals.

His facts are based on the Israeli official statements that assert the violence of such Egyptian military operations.

Israel fortified its positions on the west bank of the Suez Canal; by building the fortified stronghold Barlev Line; a chain of fortifications along its front with the Egyptian side. Once again, Israel tried to categorically affect the psychological state of the Egyptians by skirmishes of their air force.

Another stage

They were all determined to establish such net, sacrificing whatever losses or casualties. At the end our will triumphed and the anti-aircraft missiles net started to operater on June 30,1970, in a most gloomy day in the history of the Israeli Air Force.

Our net had downed 4 aircrafts, in one day, and captured three pilots. Surprise

Surprise is the first and foremost issue that October War arise; the author asserts, " There was an element of surprise for the enemy in that lofty war which helped determine it".

http://www.sis.gov.eg/VR/october/english/12.htm

Ottoman Era

Ottoman Era

In 1517, Sultan Selim I entered Egypt and he regulated rule in Egypt via dividing power among three bodies. The Wali, the governor, is the deputy of the Sultan in Egypt and he was appointed for 3 years only. His mission was to carry out the orders of the sultan, send Jezia and lead the armies.

The Divan consisted of the major officers in the Ottoman army, major employees, scholars (Ulama) and landowners. The Divan's mission was to help the Wali in ruling the country and it had the veto right to the Wali's decisions besides calling for dismissing him.

The Mamlukes led the local departments, as the Ottomans wanted to make use of their experience in running the affairs of the country.

When Ali Bey Al-Kabir assumed the office of Skeikh Al-Balad, ruler of the country, he allied with Sheikh Daher Al-Omar in Palestine against the Ottoman sultan and expelled the Ottoman Wali and announced Egypt's independence.

Ali Bey Al-Kabir managed to extend his influence to Al-Hejaz and Yemen and sent an army under the leadership of Muhammad Bey Abuda Dahab. Yet, the Ottomans managed to convince Abuda Dahab of allying with them against Ali Bey Al-Kabir, hence Egypt returned an Ottoman state.

The Mamluke Era

At the last days of the Ayyubid State, the Mamlukes controlled most of the important posts in Egypt. After the murdering of Turan Shah, the last of the Ayyubid Sultans, Shajarat El-Dur, wife of King Al-Salih Ayyoub, married Aybak one of the Bahari Mamlukes chiefs.

After the death of Aybak, a number of Bahari Mamlukes ruled over Egypt the most famous of them was Sultan Qutuz who defeated the Tartars in `Ein Jalut. Sultan Baybars succeeded Qutuz and managed to achieve a religious sovereignty over the Muslim world.

The Ayyubid Era

The Ayyubid Era

Salah al-Din Al-Ayyubi (Saladin) assumed control of Egypt upon the death of the last Fatimid Caliph Al-Adid in 1171. Salah al-Din played a great role in establishing a Sunni state in Egypt by building a lot of Sunni schools (madrasas). Before his death, Salah al-Din divided his kingdom among his sons and brothers where Egypt was the share of his son Al-Aziz Othman

The Fatimid Era

The Fatimid Era

After the death of Abu el-Misk Kafour Al-Ikhshid, the commander of the Fatimids' armies Jawhar Al-Siqilli managed to capture Alexandria in 969 A.D. Hence, the Fatimid Caliphate began in Egypt and continued for two centuries (969: 1171).

Al-Siqilli established a new capital for Egypt, namely Cairo and built Al-Azhar Mosque to teach Islamic sciences.

Ikhshidi Era

Ikhshidi Era

After the death of Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid, his minister Abu el-Misk Kafour had the guardianship over Al-Ikhshid's two sons. Under the name of Al-Ikhshid's sons, Kafour ruled over Egypt for 23 years.

On his death, the eleven-year old boy Abu Al-Fawaris Ahmed, Al-Ikhshid's grandson, succeeded him. Therefore, chaos prevailed in Egypt, a matter that paved the way before the Fatimids to seize Egypt.

Abbasid Caliphate

Abbasid Caliphate

Faris witnessed the birth of the Abbasid Caliphate when the leader of the Abbasid armies Abu Muslim Al-Khurasani revolted against the Umayyads where the battle first took place near the Euphrates before it moved to Egypt when the armies of the Abbasids, under the leadership of Salih bin Ali, achieved victory over the Umayyads and the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II was killed in 750 A.D.

Then, after entering Egypt, the leader of the Abbasids Salih bin Ali established the capital of the Abbasids in Egypt called Al-Askar.

Despite the capture of Egypt, the Abbasid influence was not stable, a matter that encouraged one of the Turk leaders in the Abbasid army in Egypt Mohamed bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid to seize power.

Islamic Conquest of Egypt

Islamic Conquest of Egypt

In 640 A.D., Amr bin Al-As conquered Egypt and he besieged the Fortress of Babylon till the surrender of the Byzantine forces there in 641 A.D.

Then, he proceeded to Alexandria and by virtue of Babylon Agreement, Alexandria surrendered too and he continued his conquest of Egypt.

The Egyptian Civilization during the Islamic Era

The Egyptian Civilization during the Islamic Era

The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt.

Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in al-Qatay' city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn el-Aas mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props and the foundation sign board. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape in Egypt derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”.

The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and Al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt.

Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion.

During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah ed-Din's (Saladin's) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics' houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains.

Egyptians under Islamic rule adopted the same techniques and styles of art and ornamentation prevailing in the preceding periods. Most notable arts of this period were wood engraving and ornamentation, assembled dove tailed and lathed wood work. Islamic style textiles, porcelain and stained glass were also widely known during this period.

The Egyptian Civilization under the Romans

The Egyptian Civilization under the Romans

In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to its unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire.

During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics and fine linen fabrics.

The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial centre in the east Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire.

Alexandria University maintained its position as a centre of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt.

Egypt in the Greek Era

Egypt in the Greek Era

Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time.

Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC-30 BC)

After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC.

The Egyptian Civilization under the Ptolemies

Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a centre of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also as the prime sea harbor on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known Lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its University, which symbolized a great Hellenistic- Egyptian civilization.

Alexandria University

At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived at scientific facts concerning the earth's rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous of the university scientists were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.

Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) and its Cultural Influence

The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time. The Library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at Alexandria Library to more than 700,000. The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs' apparel.